The study developed during the PhD course focused on human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and on possible virulence factors and molecular mechanisms applied by this agent to overcome host homeostasis, that make it of relevant medical interest. Like the other members of the Herpesviridae family, after primary infection HCMV persists in the infected host as a latent virus, a condition from which it can reactivate in asymptomatic way or, conversely, with serious consequences in subjects with altered immune response mechanisms, at risk of developing serious and often life threatening pathologies. Considering what stated above, the mechanisms enabling the transition from latency to viral reactivation are of particular relevance and their study, not easy to perform in the natural system, still engages many research groups. In fact, it is known that the main sites of HCMV latency in vivo are represented by peripheral blood monocytes and their CD34+ bone marrow progenitors, and that monocyte differentiation into macrophages is a crucial event connected to viral reactivation. On the other hand, as already mentioned, the ex vivo studies are strongly hampered by the low number of infected cells and the low amounts of HCMV DNA available in natural latency sites. In this context, during the first year of the PhD course, an in vitro infection model was developed and validated for the study of HCMV reactivation, using a human monocyte/macrophage cell line (THP-1 cells), that reproduces the in vivo mechanisms and, at the same time, allows to obtain a more suitable number of infected cells compared to the natural system. Skills acquired in this field, as well as in the research of HCMV virulence markers, has also made possible the active involvement of the Virology research group of the University of Parma in the financed project “Programma Regione-Università” (2014-2016) entitled: "A tailored approach to the immune-monitoring and clinical management of viral and autoimmune diseases" ("Workpackage 4": "HCMV infection in the elderly"). This project focused on personalized medicine and on the research of prognostic markers of different pathological conditions; in particular, our research team, in collaboration with a second group, has studied the role of HCMV infection in elderly subjects with ischemic stroke. In this category of individuals, represented by old adults (almost all positive for anti-HCMV antibodies), the reactivation of the endogenous virus represents a possibly critical event in worsening the already poor health conditions. Indeed, it has been shown that in the elderly, the maintenance of the balance between HCMV latent infection and antiviral immune response involves the expansion of the latter and a reorganization of the immune system; in this regard, a correlation between the weakening of health conditions and the increase of anti-HCMV immune response has been demonstrated. The emerging hypothesis is that, under this event, there may be rounds of systemic or localized viral reactivation. In this context, during the second year of the PhD course, the study has focused on the aspects mentioned above, and applied to a cohort of elderly subjects with ischemic stroke admitted to the University-Hospital of Parma. First, the immune status against HCMV and the presence of viral DNA (possible reactivation of HCMV) was checked in serum and plasma samples of these patients, respectively. As to anti-HCMV antibodies, the results indicated a 93% seroprevalence, which is in agreement with the fact that most individuals undergo HCMV primary infection during childhood; thus, as expected, almost all the subjects included in this study were potentially at risk of viral reactivation. Concerning HCMV viremia, the low number of copies of viral DNA, detected in 11.7% of HCMV patients, suggests that in this category of subjects the virus can escape immunological surveillance and alternate latency rounds to active replication, the latter condition being, most likely, the result of localized, rather than systemic, viral reactivation. In parallel, the skills acquired from the study carried out during the first year of the PhD course (development of an experimental model for the study of viral reactivation) were applied to achieve the differentiation of monocytes to macrophages, derived from blood samples of the ischemic stroke subjects included in the study, in order to facilitate the possible detection of HCMV DNA even in the latent state. This approach has proved to be very useful and allowed us to identify HCMV genotypes related to specific viral envelope glycoproteins. The latter are products of polymorphic genes and are considered potential markers of different virulence degrees in the circulating viral strains. Through specific HCMV DNA fragment amplification and digestion with restriction enzymes, the identification of different genotype combinations within the HCMV genes coding for N and O envelope glycoproteins (known as virulence markers) was performed. The results suggest that gN3-gO1 and gN3-gO2 could be the recurrent genotypic combinations associated with a positivity for viral DNAemia in this category of subjects. During the third year of the PhD course, the study on HCMV focused on another category of "at risk" subjects, considered within the framework of a financed “Progetto di Rilevante Interesse Nazionale” (PRIN) 2015, entitled: "Impact of DNA virus infection on the development of autoimmune diseases: focus on systemic sclerosis", which has involved the Virology research team of the University of Parma. In this regard, HCMV has recently been related to the onset of autoimmune diseases; in particular, it has been indicated among the possible factors triggering systemic sclerosis (SSc), a disease characterized by endothelial damage, skin and internal organs fibrosis and immune (both humoral and cellular) abnormalities. The etiopathogenesis of this disease remains still unknown and is likely to be multi-factorial. Similarly to other autoimmune conditions, the role of toxic and/or infectious triggering factors on a predisposing genetic "background" has been evoked, within a complex "multi-step" process. Among hypothetical factors triggering SSc, viral agents sharing the ability to establish latent/chronic infections and to infect the cell types mostly involved in the pathogenesis of the disease, such as HCMV, have been indicated. The need to shed light on the aforementioned aspects, aimed at ascertaining the involvement of HCMV in SSc, is based on a series of data arising from several studies. In particular, a significant role of T lymphocyte responses in the pathogenesis of SSc has been highlighted, with their possible contribution to the fibrosis modulation and vascular damage, even though, to date, the type and function of these specific T lymphocyte sub-populations have not been characterized. In particular, CD8+ T lymphocytes identified in the peripheral blood of SSc patients have been shown to have an antigen-dependent oligoclonal expansion, the specificity of which, however, is not yet known. HCMV has been described as one of the agents able to contribute to the expansion of specific subpopulations of CD8 + T lymphocytes with a memory-effector phenotype that increase with age (a phenomenon known as "memory inflation"). Based on these considerations, a study was performed on the possible role of HCMV infection in SSc patients, focusing on T cell-mediated immune responses. Specifically, the objectives of this study concerned: (i) the quantitative evaluation of T CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocyte responses following stimulation with immunodominant HCMV antigens (in particular pp65, IE1 and UL94) in SSc patients compared with healthy subjects, (ii) the evaluation of the possible differences between HCMV-specific CD4+ vs CD8+ T lymphocyte responses in SSc patients and (iii) the evaluation of possible differences in HCMV-specific T lymphocyte responses in relation to the disease duration and to the main clinical signs present in the considered SSc patients. Statistical analysis applied in order to evaluate the significance of the obtained results demonstrated that HCMV-specific CD8+ T lymphocyte responses were: (i) significantly higher in patients with SSc than in healthy subjects, (ii) significantly higher compared to HCMV-specific CD4+ T lymphocyte responses in patients and (iii) related to a longer disease duration and to a worsening of the modified Rodnan skin score (a standardized and validated method for the assessment of the severity of the disease in relation to SSc patients’ fibrosis). The results obtained in this study reinforce the hypothesis of HCMV involvement in the pathogenesis of this autoimmune disease. In particular, more frequent HCMV reactivation cycles in SSc patients could explain the increase of HCMV-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes with a memory-effector phenotype; in turn, this could contribute to the worsening of the inflammatory processes characteristic of SSc.
Le indagini svolte nel corso dei tre anni di Dottorato di Ricerca sono state rivolte allo studio di citomegalovirus umano (HCMV) e dei possibili fattori di virulenza e meccanismi molecolari che tale agente è in grado di mettere in atto e che lo rendono, in specifiche situazioni, di rilevante interesse medico. Come gli altri membri della famiglia Herpesviridae, HCMV dopo l’infezione primaria persiste come virus latente, condizione da cui può estemporaneamente riattivarsi in maniera inapparente o, al contrario, con gravi conseguenze in categorie di individui con alterazioni della risposta immunitaria, a rischio di sviluppare patologie gravi e non di rado mortali. Sulla base di tali premesse, i meccanismi che favoriscono la transizione dalla latenza alla riattivazione virale sono di particolare rilevanza ed il loro studio impegna, ancora oggi, numerosi gruppi di ricerca, non senza difficoltà. Infatti, è noto come le principali sedi di latenza di HCMV siano rappresentate dai monociti del sangue periferico e dai loro progenitori CD34+ del midollo osseo e che il differenziamento dei monociti a macrofagi in vivo costituisca un evento chiave legato alla riattivazione del virus. D’altra parte, gli studi ex vivo sono fortemente ostacolati dal fatto che il numero di cellule infettate e la quantità di DNA di HCMV reperibile nelle sedi naturali di latenza sono estremamente esigue. In tale contesto, nel corso del primo anno di Dottorato, utilizzando una linea monocitaria/macrofagica umana (cellule THP-1), è stato messo a punto e validato un modello di infezione in vitro per lo studio della riattivazione di HCMV che, ricalcando quanto avviene in vivo, permettesse, al contempo, di fruire di un numero adeguato di cellule infettate rispetto al sistema naturale. L’esperienza acquisita in tale ambito, così come nella ricerca di marcatori di virulenza di HCMV che differenziano i ceppi virali circolanti in natura, ha anche reso possibile il coinvolgimento attivo del gruppo di ricerca di Virologia dell’Università di Parma nel Programma Regione-Università (2014-2016) ammesso a finanziamento, dal titolo: “A tailored approach to the immune-monitoring and clinical management of viral and autoimmune diseases” (“Workpackage 4”: “HCMV infection in the elderly”). Tale progetto è focalizzato sulla Medicina personalizzata e sulla correlata ricerca di marcatori prognostici di differenti quadri patologici; in particolare, al nostro gruppo di ricerca, in collaborazione con un secondo gruppo, è stato affidato lo studio sul ruolo di HCMV in soggetti anziani con ictus ischemico. In tale categoria di individui, rappresentata da soggetti adulti per la quasi totalità positivi per anticorpi anti-HCMV, la riattivazione del virus endogeno rappresenta un evento temibile. In particolare, è stato evidenziato come, nei soggetti anziani, il mantenimento dell’equilibrio fra infezione latente da HCMV e risposta immunitaria antivirale comporti l’espansione di quest’ultima ed un riassetto del sistema immunitario; a tale riguardo, è stata dimostrata una correlazione tra il deterioramento delle condizioni di salute degli anziani e l’aumento in termini quantitativi della risposta immunitaria anti-HCMV. L’ipotesi emergente è che, sottesi a questo evento, vi possano essere episodi di riattivazione virale sistemica o localizzata. In tale contesto, nel corso del secondo anno di Dottorato lo studio è stato focalizzato sugli aspetti sopra menzionati, prendendo in considerazione una coorte di soggetti anziani con ictus ischemico ricoverati presso l’Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma. In primo luogo, è stato verificato lo stato immunitario di questi pazienti nei confronti di HCMV ed è stata effettuata la ricerca del DNA di HCMV dal plasma degli stessi per la determinazione della viremia (possibile riattivazione di HCMV). I risultati emersi dalla determinazione degli anticorpi anti-HCMV, che hanno indicato una sieroprevalenza del 93%, sono in accordo con il fatto che la maggior parte degli individui contrae l’infezione primaria da HCMV durante l’infanzia o l'età adulta. Di conseguenza, come atteso, la quasi totalità dei soggetti inclusi in questo studio sono risultati potenzialmente a rischio di riattivazione virale. Per quanto riguarda la viremia, il basso numero di copie di DNA di HCMV, rilevato nell’11.7% dei pazienti sieropositivi per HCMV, suggerisce che in questa categoria di pazienti il virus possa sfuggire alla sorveglianza immunologica ed alternare stati di latenza con stati di replicazione, verosimilmente associata ad episodi di riattivazione virale localizzata. Parallelamente, le competenze acquisite dallo studio svolto durante il primo anno di Dottorato (messa a punto di un sistema sperimentale di riattivazione virale) sono state applicate per conseguire il differenziamento dei monociti a macrofagi, ottenuti a partire dai campioni ematici dei soggetti con ictus ischemico considerati nello studio, al fine di agevolare il possibile rilevamento del DNA di HCMV anche allo stato latente. Tale fase si è rivelata di notevole utilità per permettere la successiva attuazione di indagini molecolari volte ad individuare differenti genotipi di HCMV relativi a specifiche glicoproteine del pericapside virale. Queste ultime sono prodotti di geni polimorfici e sono considerate potenziali marcatori di differenti gradi di virulenza dei ceppi virali circolanti. Attraverso amplificazione di specifici frammenti genici del DNA di HCMV e digestione con enzimi di restrizione, è stata effettuata l’identificazione delle diverse combinazioni genotipiche nell’ambito dei geni di HCMV che codificano per le glicoproteine N e O del pericapside virale, quali riconosciuti fattori di virulenza. I risultati ottenuti suggeriscono che gN3-gO1 e gN3-gO2 potrebbero essere le combinazioni genotipiche ricorrenti associate ad una positività per DNAemia virale in questa categoria di soggetti. Nel corso del terzo anno di Dottorato, lo studio su HCMV è stato focalizzato su un’altra categoria di soggetti “a rischio”, considerati nell’ambito di un Progetto di Rilevante Interesse Nazionale (PRIN) 2015, ammesso a finanziamento, dal titolo: “Impatto dell’infezione da virus a DNA sullo sviluppo di patologie autoimmuni: focus sulla sclerosi sistemica”, che ha attivamente coinvolto il gruppo di ricerca di Virologia dell’Università di Parma. A tale riguardo, HCMV è stato recentemente messo in relazione anche all’insorgenza di patologie autoimmuni ed è stato indicato, in particolare, tra i possibili fattori scatenanti la sclerosi sistemica (SSc), una malattia caratterizzata da danno endoteliale, fibrosi di cute ed organi interni ed anomalie immunitarie, sia umorali, sia cellulari. L’eziopatogenesi di tale malattia resta sconosciuta ed è verosimilmente multifattoriale; come per altre condizioni autoimmuni, si ipotizza il ruolo di fattori scatenanti tossici e/o infettivi su un “background” genetico predisponente, nell’ambito di un complesso processo “multi-step”. Costituiscono ipotetici fattori scatenanti la SSc alcuni virus, accomunati dalla capacità di instaurare infezione latente/cronica e di infettare le tipologie cellulari coinvolte nella patogenesi della malattia, quali HCMV. L’esigenza dell’approfondimento di queste ricerche, volte ad appurare il ruolo patogenetico di HCMV nella SSc, è dettata da una serie di dati emersi da diversi studi. In particolare, è stato evidenziato un ruolo rilevante delle risposte linfocitarie T nella patogenesi della SSc, con possibile contributo delle stesse alla modulazione della fibrosi e al danno vascolare, anche se, ad oggi, la tipologia e la funzione di queste specifiche sottopopolazioni di linfociti T non sono ancora state caratterizzate in relazione alle diverse fasi della patologia. In particolare, i linfociti T CD8+ identificati nel sangue periferico di pazienti con SSc presentano un'espansione oligoclonale antigene-dipendente, la cui specificità tuttavia non è ancora nota. HCMV è stato descritto come uno degli agenti in grado di contribuire all'espansione di specifiche sottopopolazioni di linfociti T CD8+ con fenotipo della memoria ed effettore in relazione all’aumentare dell'età (fenomeno noto come “memory inflation”). Sulla base di queste considerazioni, è stato effettuato uno studio relativo al ruolo dell’infezione da HCMV in soggetti affetti da SSc, focalizzando l’attenzione sulla risposta immunitaria cellulo-mediata. Nello specifico, gli obiettivi dello studio hanno riguardato: (i) la valutazione quantitativa delle risposte dei linfociti T CD4+ e T CD8+ in seguito a stimolazione con antigeni immunodominati di HCMV (in particolare pp65, IE1 e UL94) nei soggetti affetti da SSc a confronto con soggetti sani, (ii) la valutazione delle possibili differenze tra le risposte linfocitarie T CD4+ e le risposte linfocitarie T CD8+ HCMV-specifiche nei pazienti affetti da SSc e (iii) la valutazione delle possibili differenze delle risposte linfocitarie HCMV-specifiche in relazione alla durata della malattia e ai principali segni clinici riscontrati nei pazienti. A seguito dell’analisi statistica, applicata al fine di valutare la significatività delle differenze riscontrate, le risposte linfocitarie T CD8+ HCMV-specifiche sono risultate: (i) significativamente più elevate nei pazienti affetti da SSc rispetto ai soggetti sani, (ii) significativamente più elevate rispetto alle risposte linfocitarie T CD4+ HCMV-specifiche nei pazienti e (iii) connesse ad una maggiore durata della malattia e ad un peggioramento del modified Rodnan skin score (metodo standardizzato e validato per la valutazione della gravità della malattia in relazione all'entità della fibrosi in questi pazienti). I risultati ottenuti in questo studio rinforzano l’ipotesi di un coinvolgimento di HCMV nella patogenesi di questa malattia autoimmune. In particolare, cicli di riattivazione di HCMV più frequenti nei pazienti affetti da SSc potrebbero spiegare l'incremento dei linfociti T CD8+ HCMV-specifici con fenotipo di memoria ed effettore; questo potrebbe contribuire all’aggravamento dei processi infiammatori caratteristici della SSc.
L’infezione da citomegalovirus umano in particolari categorie di soggetti: possibili fattori di virulenza e risposte dell’ospite
2019
Abstract
The study developed during the PhD course focused on human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and on possible virulence factors and molecular mechanisms applied by this agent to overcome host homeostasis, that make it of relevant medical interest. Like the other members of the Herpesviridae family, after primary infection HCMV persists in the infected host as a latent virus, a condition from which it can reactivate in asymptomatic way or, conversely, with serious consequences in subjects with altered immune response mechanisms, at risk of developing serious and often life threatening pathologies. Considering what stated above, the mechanisms enabling the transition from latency to viral reactivation are of particular relevance and their study, not easy to perform in the natural system, still engages many research groups. In fact, it is known that the main sites of HCMV latency in vivo are represented by peripheral blood monocytes and their CD34+ bone marrow progenitors, and that monocyte differentiation into macrophages is a crucial event connected to viral reactivation. On the other hand, as already mentioned, the ex vivo studies are strongly hampered by the low number of infected cells and the low amounts of HCMV DNA available in natural latency sites. In this context, during the first year of the PhD course, an in vitro infection model was developed and validated for the study of HCMV reactivation, using a human monocyte/macrophage cell line (THP-1 cells), that reproduces the in vivo mechanisms and, at the same time, allows to obtain a more suitable number of infected cells compared to the natural system. Skills acquired in this field, as well as in the research of HCMV virulence markers, has also made possible the active involvement of the Virology research group of the University of Parma in the financed project “Programma Regione-Università” (2014-2016) entitled: "A tailored approach to the immune-monitoring and clinical management of viral and autoimmune diseases" ("Workpackage 4": "HCMV infection in the elderly"). This project focused on personalized medicine and on the research of prognostic markers of different pathological conditions; in particular, our research team, in collaboration with a second group, has studied the role of HCMV infection in elderly subjects with ischemic stroke. In this category of individuals, represented by old adults (almost all positive for anti-HCMV antibodies), the reactivation of the endogenous virus represents a possibly critical event in worsening the already poor health conditions. Indeed, it has been shown that in the elderly, the maintenance of the balance between HCMV latent infection and antiviral immune response involves the expansion of the latter and a reorganization of the immune system; in this regard, a correlation between the weakening of health conditions and the increase of anti-HCMV immune response has been demonstrated. The emerging hypothesis is that, under this event, there may be rounds of systemic or localized viral reactivation. In this context, during the second year of the PhD course, the study has focused on the aspects mentioned above, and applied to a cohort of elderly subjects with ischemic stroke admitted to the University-Hospital of Parma. First, the immune status against HCMV and the presence of viral DNA (possible reactivation of HCMV) was checked in serum and plasma samples of these patients, respectively. As to anti-HCMV antibodies, the results indicated a 93% seroprevalence, which is in agreement with the fact that most individuals undergo HCMV primary infection during childhood; thus, as expected, almost all the subjects included in this study were potentially at risk of viral reactivation. Concerning HCMV viremia, the low number of copies of viral DNA, detected in 11.7% of HCMV patients, suggests that in this category of subjects the virus can escape immunological surveillance and alternate latency rounds to active replication, the latter condition being, most likely, the result of localized, rather than systemic, viral reactivation. In parallel, the skills acquired from the study carried out during the first year of the PhD course (development of an experimental model for the study of viral reactivation) were applied to achieve the differentiation of monocytes to macrophages, derived from blood samples of the ischemic stroke subjects included in the study, in order to facilitate the possible detection of HCMV DNA even in the latent state. This approach has proved to be very useful and allowed us to identify HCMV genotypes related to specific viral envelope glycoproteins. The latter are products of polymorphic genes and are considered potential markers of different virulence degrees in the circulating viral strains. Through specific HCMV DNA fragment amplification and digestion with restriction enzymes, the identification of different genotype combinations within the HCMV genes coding for N and O envelope glycoproteins (known as virulence markers) was performed. The results suggest that gN3-gO1 and gN3-gO2 could be the recurrent genotypic combinations associated with a positivity for viral DNAemia in this category of subjects. During the third year of the PhD course, the study on HCMV focused on another category of "at risk" subjects, considered within the framework of a financed “Progetto di Rilevante Interesse Nazionale” (PRIN) 2015, entitled: "Impact of DNA virus infection on the development of autoimmune diseases: focus on systemic sclerosis", which has involved the Virology research team of the University of Parma. In this regard, HCMV has recently been related to the onset of autoimmune diseases; in particular, it has been indicated among the possible factors triggering systemic sclerosis (SSc), a disease characterized by endothelial damage, skin and internal organs fibrosis and immune (both humoral and cellular) abnormalities. The etiopathogenesis of this disease remains still unknown and is likely to be multi-factorial. Similarly to other autoimmune conditions, the role of toxic and/or infectious triggering factors on a predisposing genetic "background" has been evoked, within a complex "multi-step" process. Among hypothetical factors triggering SSc, viral agents sharing the ability to establish latent/chronic infections and to infect the cell types mostly involved in the pathogenesis of the disease, such as HCMV, have been indicated. The need to shed light on the aforementioned aspects, aimed at ascertaining the involvement of HCMV in SSc, is based on a series of data arising from several studies. In particular, a significant role of T lymphocyte responses in the pathogenesis of SSc has been highlighted, with their possible contribution to the fibrosis modulation and vascular damage, even though, to date, the type and function of these specific T lymphocyte sub-populations have not been characterized. In particular, CD8+ T lymphocytes identified in the peripheral blood of SSc patients have been shown to have an antigen-dependent oligoclonal expansion, the specificity of which, however, is not yet known. HCMV has been described as one of the agents able to contribute to the expansion of specific subpopulations of CD8 + T lymphocytes with a memory-effector phenotype that increase with age (a phenomenon known as "memory inflation"). Based on these considerations, a study was performed on the possible role of HCMV infection in SSc patients, focusing on T cell-mediated immune responses. Specifically, the objectives of this study concerned: (i) the quantitative evaluation of T CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocyte responses following stimulation with immunodominant HCMV antigens (in particular pp65, IE1 and UL94) in SSc patients compared with healthy subjects, (ii) the evaluation of the possible differences between HCMV-specific CD4+ vs CD8+ T lymphocyte responses in SSc patients and (iii) the evaluation of possible differences in HCMV-specific T lymphocyte responses in relation to the disease duration and to the main clinical signs present in the considered SSc patients. Statistical analysis applied in order to evaluate the significance of the obtained results demonstrated that HCMV-specific CD8+ T lymphocyte responses were: (i) significantly higher in patients with SSc than in healthy subjects, (ii) significantly higher compared to HCMV-specific CD4+ T lymphocyte responses in patients and (iii) related to a longer disease duration and to a worsening of the modified Rodnan skin score (a standardized and validated method for the assessment of the severity of the disease in relation to SSc patients’ fibrosis). The results obtained in this study reinforce the hypothesis of HCMV involvement in the pathogenesis of this autoimmune disease. In particular, more frequent HCMV reactivation cycles in SSc patients could explain the increase of HCMV-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes with a memory-effector phenotype; in turn, this could contribute to the worsening of the inflammatory processes characteristic of SSc.I documenti in UNITESI sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.
https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/133601
URN:NBN:IT:UNIPR-133601