ABSTRACT The PhD thesis Risonanze antiche nel pensiero e nella poesia di un Romantico: S. T. Coleridge e il neoplatonismo originates in the field of the so-called reception studies and aims at analysing the influence of Neoplatonism in general and Plotinus in particular on S. T. Coleridge’s thought and works. An extensive and thorough study of this type has never been carried out before. Today Coleridge’s status as a philosopher is generally recognised. However, although critics have concentrated on the relationships between Coleridge and several thinkers and philosophical theories (first of all, Plato and German Idealism), at present, the interest in his debt towards Neoplatonic doctrines emerges in no major critical study of the poet. In general, the influence of this ancient philosophy on Coleridge appears only as a reference in monographs concerning other aspects of his literary and speculative activity, while specific works about the relationship between the poet and Neoplatonism are scanty. This dissertation intends to fill in this critical gap, by proposing an interpretation of Coleridge’s philosophical system and poems from a Neoplatonic perspective. The focus of the analysis is, therefore, on how Neoplatonism has influenced the origin of his most important philosophical concepts, discussed in Biographia Literaria (1817) and other prose works, as well as on how it has played a fundamental role in the composition of some of his poems. As far as Coleridge’s philosophical concepts are concerned, the Neoplatonic references in Biographia Literaria are more than a few. First of all, allusions to Plotinus emerge in Coleridge’s investigation of the concept of philosophical consciousness, in the characteristics attributed to the so-called transcendental philosopher and in his elaboration of the Ten Theses in Chapter XII. The Ten Theses can be read through the Plotinian lens (and not just in relation to Schelling, as scholars have generally done). The parallelism with Plotinus is particularly evident in the sixth thesis. Here, indeed, the principle enunciated by Coleridge, the I AM, shares similarities with the Plotinian second hypostasis, the Nous, or Intelligence. Also Coleridge’s distinction between Fancy and Imagination has its roots in the ancient philosophical tradition. Among other thinkers, also in this case, Plotinus is of particular importance, since his conception of Imagination can be considered a predecessor of Coleridge’s. Both philosophers conceive Imagination as a shaping spirit and divide it into two sub-types: the ancient philosopher distinguishes sensible and conceptual imagination, the Romantic differentiates between primary and secondary Imagination. Another important opposition in Coleridge is that between Reason and Understanding, which he derives from the Cambridge Platonists, in particular Ralph Cudworth. Cudworth highlights the limits of Understanding while he identifies the unity between Reason and the divine, defining the former as the first participation of God. In the same way, not only in Biographia Literaria but also in Table Talk, The Friend and Aids to Reflection, as well as in his letters, Coleridge talks about this distinction and identifies Reason as the highest human faculty. Neoplatonism, however, is not only a presence in Coleridge’s philosophic production. Neoplatonic themes, images, symbols and figures appear in some of his poems too, for example in “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (in the 1798 and 1817 versions), the “Conversation Poems” (written between 1795 and 1798), “Religious Musings” (composed between 1794 and 1796), and “Kubla Khan” (published in 1816). In order to retrieve the Neoplatonic roots of these texts, it is necessary to bear in mind the principal sources of this ancient philosophy, namely the Enneads by Plotinus, the dialogue De operatione daemonum and the Chaldean Oracles by Micheal Psellus, On the Ægyptians Mystieries by Iamblichus and On the Cave of Nymphs by Porphyry. From these works, Coleridge derives many themes and characters, which he employs, more or less explicitly, in his poems. However, Coleridge is not the only poet of his age influenced by ancient philosophies and traditions. Indeed, the Romantic period is characterised by a Hellenic revival, in particular of Greek myth. This renovated interest in ancient Greece is to be considered, firstly, as part of the Romantic reaction against the rationalistic and mechanicistic vision of the world and man which was dominant in the eighteenth century and, secondly, as an aspect of the primitivism and idealism which spread in Europe at that time. Poets such as Blake, Wordsworth, Keats, Byron, and Shelley employ classical myths in literary works in which also references to Platonism and Neoplatonism can be found. As a matter of fact, there are several parallelisms between Neoplatonism and Romanticism. First of all, the Neoplatonic circle of emanation of the “many” from the One and their return to the source (or epistrophe) should be taken into account. The relationship between the One and the many is at the centre of the Enneads, where Plotinus explains that, through emanation, the One overflows into an other and so into all existing things, through a series of stages, called hypostases – first, mind, then soul and, at the farthest possible end, the material universe. The hypostases descend along a scale of increasing remoteness from the One, thus a scale of increasing division and multiplicity. However, what Plotinus calls “individual souls”, once descended into corporeity, feel a deep sense of nostalgia for the One and so they desire to return to it. The Neoplatonic circle mirrors the Romantic circular journey, which begins with the departure from the source, or the separation from the initial union with Nature, leads to the fall into multiplicity and ends with final reconciliation. Moreover, nostalgia is a distinctive feature of both Neoplatonism and Romanticism. Actually, modern man is more and more distant from the early unity with Nature and, as a consequence, experiments a condition of alienation and longing for his former state. From this perspective, he can be compared to the character of the wandering homesick man, as testified not only in the philosophy but also in the literature of that period. Meaningful examples of this figure appear in the Lyrical Ballads. The most important representation is of course offered by the Ancient Mariner, a character alienated in consequence of the crime he committed: the unmotivated killing of the Albatross, which can be considered a crime against Nature and the laws of hospitality. Neoplatonism provides the metaphysical basis for “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”. Some of the Neoplatonic allusions are unambiguous, at least in the 1817 version (published in Sibylline Leaves), thanks to the adding of the Gloss, while others are more cryptic. Firstly, as far as the distinction between the One and the many is concerned, it is worth noticing that, in “The Rime”, the One coincides with God, while the many are numerous – both animals and human beings. In the animal world, following the hierarchical system typical of Neoplatonism, the many are divided into beings of the highest level, living in the sky, with the Albatross on top, followed by the birds whose jargoning is heard in Part the Fifth, and beings of the lowest level, that is, the water snakes. Also the classification of the human characters is related to Neoplatonic sources, in particular the categorisation of men proposed by Plotinus in the Enneads, where men are divided into three orders, according to their behaviours and personalities. In addition, Neoplatonic allusions can be seen in the structure of the poem. As a matter of fact, the Neoplatonic circle is reflected in the tripartite process of change undergone by the Ancient Mariner (from sin, through penance, to repentance and redemption). If the Neoplatonic circle of emanation ends with the epistrophe, different types of return are present in “The Rime”. The first is that of the angelic spirits to the Absolute (which takes place in an atmosphere dominated by light and music – two important elements in Neoplatonic metaphysics). The second is the return of the Ancient Mariner to his homeland. Moreover, in this journey home, the Mariner experiences a particular condition: he is cast into a state of trance which may be associated with Plotinian ecstasy, the moment in which the sensible and the intelligible meet. Apart from the Enneads, there are other underlying philosophical sources in the composition of “The Rime”, namely the dialogue De operatione daemonum, whose author, Psellus, is mentioned in the Gloss. The ancient philosopher classifies dæmons into six species, according to their abodes, and provides an accurate description of these varieties. From this text, Coleridge takes the classification of the dæmons of the elements, referred to in the Gloss (added in the 1817 edition) and of which several examples occur in the poem. Even though they are more implicit, allusions to Neoplatonism can be found in the 1798 version, too. In it there are subterranean reminiscences of Thomas Taylor, the English Neoplatonist, the most important translator of Neoplatonic mysticism, whose theories Coleridge is familiar with. The references to Taylor are linked to the figure of the torch-bearer, a character appearing in his Dissertation on the Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries, where he is identified as the interpreter of mysteries. The image of the torch is central in a passage of the 1798 version, but then removed in the following editions. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” is, therefore, strongly influenced by Neoplatonism. However, it is not the only case. Neoplatonic themes and images can be found in the “Conversation Poems” and “Religious Musings” as well. In these texts, Neoplatonic references are not just confined to the ancient philosophers, but appear also in the mediation of the Cambridge Platonists, those thinkers Coleridge would define as “plotinists”, in particular Ralph Cudworth. “The Conversation Poems” can be considered a good example of the representation of Coleridge’s Neoplatonic poetics and, like other important poems of his, show several Neoplatonic elements. As regards their form, it should be noticed that they have a tripartite and circular structure which recalls the Neoplatonic circle. As for themes and images, there are several parallelisms as well. The first poem analysed in this thesis, “The Eolian Harp”, provides numerous examples. This text is representative of Coleridge’s revisionary tendency, as he reworks it many times. Also the title was modified, and it is in the final one that there is a hint at Plotinus, who, in the Ennead IV, mentions the harp. In every version, however, there are Neoplatonic references, more or less stressed. The poem presents a harmonious universe, a holistic vision of Nature and pantheistic allusions. Moreover, in the “Errata” contained in Sibylline Leaves, Coleridge adds a passage about the One Life within us and abroad that the poet probably derives from his Neoplatonic studies. Another element connected to Neoplatonic theories is the image of joyance, which recalls Plotinian ecstasy and contemplation. Several of the elements mentioned above are found in the other “Conversation Poems”. In “This Lime-tree Bower my Prison” (1797) there are pantheistic allusions and references to spirits and a sense of deep joy. “Frost at Midnight” (1798) is fraught with Neoplatonic echoes, such as the figure of the Almighty and pantheistic suggestions. “The Nightingale” (1798) expresses similar ideas; in particular the character of the “night-wandering man” shares common traits with the souls that, in Plotinus, feel nostalgia for the One and long to return to it. In “Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement” (1795), the poet finds, in the sensible objects of Nature, the way to reach the Spirit of Nature through Imagination. Finally, in “Fears in Solitude” (1798), Nature is associated with sweetness and an atmosphere of joy. “Religious Musings” (composed between 1794 and 1796) resonates with Neoplatonic elements combined with Christian ones. Here, the Almighty is defined as “the ever-living One”, is associated with an atmosphere of light and opposed to the “wretched Many”. Furthermore, there are references to adoration, contemplation and ecstasy. Neoplatonic motifs and images are also present in “Kubla Khan” (published in 1816), a multifaceted poem open to different interpretations. Some critics have analysed it from a Platonic perspective, thus neglecting the Neoplatonic influences almost completely. However, the images present in “Kubla Khan” can be read through Neoplatonic lenses, too. The sources Coleridge is indebted to are the Enneads, the Chaldean Oracles and On the Cave of Nymphs. Among the numerous images and symbols, particular attention should be paid to the “pleasure-dome”, which represents the reconciliation of opposites and where multiplicity converges into a harmonious whole, or unity. It is also the ideal place to have inspirations and visions and to experience the sensation of deep delight, which Coleridge associates with the ultimate community with Nature or with the Absolute. In other words, according to the Neoplatonic reading, the pleasure-dome is the privileged abode in which to come into contact with the Absolute and feel ecstasy. A sacred component can be found also in the “deep romantic chasm”, defined as a savage place, holy and enchanted and characterised by the combination of different or opposite elements, such as the natural and the supernatural, the natural and the artificial, good and evil. A particularly significant image consists in the “caverns measureless to man”, as, in ancient times, caverns symbolised the material world as well as invisible powers and were the place in which rites related to mysteries were celebrated. The image of the cavern appears in several Platonic and Neoplatonic works, for example Plato’s Fedo and Porphyry’s On the Cave of Nymphs. Dæmonic presences in “Kubla Khan” are equally important: the dæmon-lover, the damsel with a dulcimer, and, above all, the inspired and possessed poet with flashing eyes and floating hair. The dæmon-lover, wailed by a woman, is of clear Neoplatonic inspiration. Moreover, the figure of women wailing for their dæmon-lovers is not uncommon in Coleridge’s poems. An example of inspiring woman is the damsel with a dulcimer, later defined as an Abyssinian Maid. This character is associated with the motif of the power of music, which has evident Neoplatonic resonances. In the poem, the music that the poet heard in the vision of the Abyssinian maid, could he recover it, would stir him into a creating passion, which would give him “flashing eyes” and “floating hair”. Indeed, one of the most striking images in “Kubla Khan” is that of the inspired and possessed poet. The general tendency in critical studies is to relate this character to Plato and his dialogues Ion and Pheadrus. In these works, it is suggested that poets conceive beautiful poems not thanks to their artistic skills, but because they are inspired and possessed by Muses. However, Plato is not the only source. We must add The Chaldean Oracles, in which Psellus investigates divine inspiration and possession in their Chaldean origins. According to a Neoplatonic reading, therefore, the poet represented in “Kubla Khan” is an example of daemonic inspiration or, from a Plotinian perspective, someone who is experimenting ecstasy. Finally, also the representation of Paradise in “Kubla Khan” seems indebted to several Neoplatonic sources, such as The Chaldean Oracles, in which Paradise is described as the garden of contemplation, and Plotinus’ idea, that Paradise can be linked to the encounter with the One, from which ecstasy arises. The thesis consists of seven main chapters. Chapter one offers an introduction to the field of reception studies, by taking into account the delineation of the development of reception theories and the contributions of important scholars and philosophers, such as Hans Robert Jauss, Wolfgang Iser, and Hans-Georg Gadamer. Chapter two focuses on the reception and uses of the Classics, Greek myth and the ancient philosophical traditions of Platonism and Neoplatonism, in particular on the part of English Romantic poets. Chapter three concentrates on the fortune of Neoplatonism in the Romantic period, on the main themes of this ancient philosophy and how they emerge in Romantic motifs, such as the circular voyage and the condition of alienation of modern man. The specific case of Coleridge and his links with the classical world are at the centre of chapter four, whose main focus is on Neoplatonic influences on Coleridge’s thought, in particular on the formulation of the Ten Theses and fundamental concepts, mainly in the Biographia Literaria, such as Fancy and primary and secondary Imagination. Chapter five proposes a Neoplatonic reading of “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”, in terms of themes and figures, namely the Neoplatonic cosmic circle of emanation and epistrophe, the distinction between the One and the many, and spiritual and dæmonic agencies. Chapter six begins with the analysis of the influence of the Cambridge Platonist Ralph Cudworth on Coleridge’s distinction between Reason and Understanding, while the second part concentrates on the Neoplatonic analysis of the “Conversation Poems” and “Religious Musings”. The last chapter proposes the Neoplatonic interpretation of “Kubla Khan”, a complex work whose images and symbols are indebted to several sources, including Neoplatonism.
ABSTRACT La tesi di Dottorato Risonanze antiche nel pensiero e nella poesia di un Romantico: S. T. Coleridge e il neoplatonismo, si inquadra nel campo dei cosiddetti reception studies e si propone di analizzare come il neoplatonismo, in generale, e il pensiero di Plotino, in particolare, abbiano influenzato fortemente la produzione filosofica e poetica di S. T. Coleridge. Uno studio di questo tipo non è ancora stato affrontato. Lo status di Coleridge come filosofo è, ad oggi, in genere riconosciuto; tuttavia, la critica si è concentrata prevalentemente sulla relazione fra il poeta romantico e diversi pensatori e teorie filosofiche (primi fra tutti Platone e l’Idealismo tedesco), tralasciando il debito nei confronti delle dottrine neoplatoniche o considerandolo aspetto marginale. In generale, l’influsso del neoplatonismo su Coleridge compare solo come riferimento all’interno di monografie riguardanti altri aspetti della sua attività speculativa e letteraria, mentre sono rari i testi critici che si concentrano in modo specifico su tale rapporto. La presente tesi intende colmare questa lacuna, proponendo l’interpretazione del sistema filosofico elaborato da Coleridge e della sua poesia in chiave neoplatonica. Lo studio si focalizza, pertanto, su come il neoplatonismo sia all’origine dei suoi concetti filosofici più rilevanti, discussi nella Biographia Literaria (1817) e in altre importanti opere in prosa, e come esso abbia giocato un ruolo fondamentale nella composizione di alcune delle sue poesie più conosciute. Per quanto riguarda i concetti filosofici, nella Biographia Literaria i riferimenti al neoplatonismo sono frequenti. In primo luogo, allusioni a Plotino emergono nell’investigazione da parte di Coleridge della “philosophical consciousness”, nelle caratteristiche attribuite al “transcendental philosopher” e nell’elaborazione delle Dieci Tesi presentate nel capitolo XII. Queste ultime possono, infatti, essere lette nella prospettiva plotiniana e non semplicemente in relazione a Schelling (aspetto sul quale la critica si è prevalentemente soffermata). In particolare, il parallelismo con Plotino è evidente nella sesta tesi, in cui il principio enunciato da Coleridge, definito “I AM”, mostra alcuni punti di contatto con la seconda ipostasi plotiniana, il NOUS. In secondo luogo, occorre notare che anche la distinzione fra Fancy e Imagination ha le sue radici nella tradizione filosofica antica, in diversi pensatori e, soprattutto, in Plotino, tanto da potersi affermare che è proprio il concetto di immaginazione del filosofo neoplatonico ad essere il predecessore di quello coleridgeano. Sia Plotino sia Coleridge, infatti, intendono l’immaginazione come uno “shaping spirit”, e la suddividono in due tipi: il filosofo antico opera una differenza tra immaginazione sensibile e concettuale, mentre il poeta e pensatore romantico elabora la nota distinzione fra primary e secondary Imagination. Infine, un’altra importante dicotomia che pervade l’opera di Coleridge è quella fra Reason e Understanding, che egli riprende dai Platonici di Cambridge e, in special modo, da Ralph Cudworth. Quest’ultimo evidenzia i limiti dell’Understanding mentre identifica l’unità fra Reason e il divino e definisce la ragione come la prima partecipazione di Dio. Allo stesso modo, Coleridge, in svariate opere, quali la Biographia Literaria, Table Talk, The Friend e Aids to Reflection, così come nelle lettere, affronta tale distinzione e vede nella Reason la facoltà umana più alta. Il neoplatonismo non è, però, alla base esclusivamente della produzione filosofica di Coleridge, ma, al contrario, pervade anche i temi, le immagini, i simboli e i personaggi di diverse sue poesie, come “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (nelle versioni del 1798 e del 1817), le “Conversation Poems” (scritte fra il 1795 e il 1798), “Religious Musings” (composta fra il 1794 e il 1796) e “Kubla Khan” (pubblicata nel 1816) Per poter individuare le radici neoplatoniche dei testi sopra menzionati, è necessario tenere presenti le maggiori fonti di questa filosofia antica, ossia le Enneadi di Plotino, il dialogo De operatione dæmonum (conosciuto anche come De Dæmonibus) e gli Oracoli Caldaici di Michele Psello, I misteri egiziani di Giamblico e De Antro Nympharum di Porfirio. Da tali opere, Coleridge riprende temi e personaggi e li riutilizza, in modo più o meno esplicito, nelle sue poesie. In ogni caso, Coleridge non è l’unico poeta del suo tempo a subire l’influsso del mondo antico. L’epoca romantica è, infatti, caratterizzata da quello che può essere definito un vero e proprio revival ellenico in generale e del mito greco in particolare. Questo rinnovato interesse per l’antica Grecia può essere considerato, innanzitutto, come parte della reazione contro la visione razionalista e meccanicista del mondo e dell’uomo moderno, che dominava nel XVIII secolo, e, secondariamente, come un aspetto del primitivismo e dell’idealismo diffusisi in Europa in quel periodo. Poeti come Blake, Wordsworth, Keats, Byron e Shelley utilizzano il mito classico nelle loro opere, in cui, inoltre, si ritrovano riferimenti al platonismo e al neoplatonismo. Numerosi sono, infatti, i parallelismi fra Romanticismo e neoplatonismo, primo fra tutti il ciclo neoplatonico di emanazione dei “molti” a partire dall’Uno e ritorno alla fonte (o epistrofe). Il rapporto fra i molti e l’Uno è al centro delle Enneadi. Come spiega Plotino, i molti derivano per emanazione dall’Uno, attraverso una serie di gradi di essere sempre meno perfetti mano a mano che ci si allontana dal principio iniziale. Dall’Uno, che sta al vertice e che è la prima delle ipostasi, procedono per emanazione tutte le altre realtà: l’Intelletto, l’Anima e, sul gradino più basso, la materia. La scala presentata è, pertanto, di crescente allontanamento dall’Uno e, di conseguenza, di crescente divisione e molteplicità. Plotino definisce anche le anime individuali che, cadute nei lacci della corporeità, provano una profonda nostalgia per l’Uno e aspirano a ritornarvi. Il ciclo neoplatonico rispecchia il viaggio circolare romantico, che inizia con l’allontanamento dalla fonte, o separazione dall’unione inziale con la natura, porta alla caduta nella molteplicità e si conclude con la riconciliazione finale. Inoltre, la nostalgia è una cifra distintiva tanto del neoplatonismo che del romanticismo. Non per niente, l’uomo moderno, che una volta era felice, è ora diviso dall’unione iniziale con la natura e, per questo motivo, si trova a soffrire una condizione di alienazione e desidera ritornare allo stato originario. Da quest’ottica, egli può essere messo a paragone con il cosiddetto “wandering man”, che prova un’inguaribile nostalgia di casa, come testimoniato tanto nella filosofia che nella letteratura dell’epoca. Esempi significativi in tal senso sono le poesie contenute nelle Lyrical Ballads, in cui la rappresentazione principale è il Vecchio Marinaio, personaggio fortemente alienato in conseguenza della colpa che ha commesso: l’uccisione fredda e immotivata dell’Albatro, che si configura come un crimine contro la natura e le leggi dell’ospitalità. Il neoplatonismo non a caso fornisce la base metafisica per la composizione di “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”. Se alcuni riferimenti sono espliciti, almeno nella versione del 1817, grazie all’aggiunta della glossa, altri sono più criptici. In primo luogo, per quanto concerne la distinzione fra i molti e l’Uno, occorre notare come, nella “Rime”, l’Uno coincida con Dio, mentre i molti che popolano il poema sono numerosi e si distinguono in esseri umani e creature appartenenti al regno animale. Gli animali sembrano seguire una gerarchizzazione di chiaro stampo neoplatonico: essi sono divisi in quelli che vivono sul piano più alto, le creature del cielo (con al vertice l’Albatro, seguito dagli altri uccelli il cui canto è udito nella Part the Fifth) e quelli che si trovano al livello più basso, i serpenti marini, Anche la classificazione dei personaggi umani può essere riportata alle fonti neoplatoniche, nella fattispecie alla categorizzazione degli uomini offerta da Plotino, il quale, nelle Enneadi, distingue gli uomini in tre ordini, secondo il loro carattere e la loro personalità. Inoltre, allusioni neoplatoniche possono essere ravvisate nella struttura dell’opera. Il ciclo neoplatonico, infatti, si riflette nel processo tripartito di cambiamento interiore che conduce il Vecchio Marinaio dal peccato, attraverso la pena, al pentimento e alla redenzione. Se il ciclo neoplatonico di emanazione termina con il ritorno alla fonte, allo stesso modo sono presenti, nella “Rime”, diversi tipi di ritorno. Il primo è quello degli spiriti angelici all’Assoluto mentre il secondo è quello del Vecchio Marinaio alla terra natale. Oltre alle Enneadi, vi sono altre importanti fonti filosofiche alla base di “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”, come il dialogo De operatione dæmonum, il cui autore, Michele Psello, viene menzionato nella glossa. In quest’opera, Psello classifica i demoni in sei specie, a seconda del luogo in cui vivono, e ne fornisce una descrizione accurata. Da questo testo, Coleridge ricava la classificazione dei demoni degli elementi, a cui fa riferimento nella glossa (aggiunta nell’edizione del 1817) e di cui diversi esempi ricorrono nel poemetto. Allusioni, sebbene più implicite, al neoplatonismo si ritrovano anche nella versione del 1798, dove affiorano reminiscenze sotterranee di Thomas Taylor, “the English Neoplatonist”, il più importante traduttore del misticismo neoplatonico, le cui teorie non erano sconosciute a Coleridge. I riferimenti a Taylor sono ravvisabili nella figura del “torch-bearer”, personaggio che compare nella sua opera dal titolo Dissertation on the Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries, dove viene identificato come l’interprete dei misteri. L’immagine della torcia è centrale in un passo della versione della “Rime” del 1798, poi, però, rimossa nelle edizioni successive. Alla luce di quanto esposto, “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” appare, dunque, come fortemente influenzata dal neoplatonismo, senza però essere l’unico caso. Tematiche e figure neoplatoniche sono presenti anche nelle “Conversation Poems” e in “Religious Musings”, in cui i riferimenti al neoplatonismo non sono limitati alla sua forma antica ma appaiono anche nella mediazione dei Platonici di Cambridge e, in special modo, di Ralph Cudworth. In particolare, le “Conversation Poems” possono essere considerate la rappresentazione della poetica neoplatonica di Coleridge e presentano tutta una serie di elementi neoplatonici, a partire dalla forma che è circolare e tripartita e che ricorda, quindi, il ciclo neoplatonico. Oltre alla struttura, numerosi sono i parallelismi per quanto riguarda tanto i temi quanto le immagini. La prima delle “Conversation Poems” analizzata in questa tesi è “The Eolian Harp”, testo rappresentativo della tendenza di Coleridge a ritornare sui propri componimenti, dal momento che è stato rielaborato più volte. Anche il titolo ha subito modifiche, fino ad arrivare a quello finale in cui si avverte un richiamo a Plotino, in particolare all’Enneade IV, in cui si fa riferimento all’arpa. In ogni versione, tuttavia, sono presenti, in modo più o meno evidente, echi neoplatonici. Nella poesia viene raffigurato un universo armonioso, una visione olistica della natura, nonché allusioni panteistiche. Inoltre, nell’“Errata” contenuta in Sibylline Leaves, Coleridge aggiunge un passo sulla “One Life”, che ricava, con tutta probabilità, dai suoi studi neoplatonici al pari dell’immagine della gioia che richiama l’estasi e la contemplazione plotiniane. Diversi elementi fra quelli già menzionati ritornano anche nelle altre “Conversation Poems”. In “This lime-tree Bower my Prison” (1797) si notano allusioni panteistiche, riferimenti agli spiriti e un profondo senso di gioia; al pari, “Frost at Midnight” (1798) presenta sia echi neoplatonici, come la figura dell’Onnipotente, che panteistici. Elementi simili si ritrovano in “The Nightingale” (1798), in cui, in particolare, spicca il personaggio del “night-wandering man”, che ha tratti in comune con le anime le quali, secondo Plotino, provano nostalgia per l’Uno e aspirano a ritornarvi. In “Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement” (1795) il poeta trova, negli oggetti sensibili della natura, il modo per raggiungere lo spirito di essa attraverso l’immaginazione. Infine, in “Fears in Solitude” (1798), la natura è associata alla dolcezza e viene raffigurata un’atmosfera di gioia. Anche “Religious Musings” (composta fra il 1794 e il 1796) mostra risonanze neoplatoniche, combinate qui con elementi cristiani. Nella poesia, l’Onnipotente è descritto come “the ever-living One”, viene associato a un’atmosfera di luce e messo in contrapposizione ai “wretched Many”. Sono presenti, infine, riferimenti all’adorazione, alla contemplazione e all’estasi. Immagini e motivi neoplatonici ritornano in “Kubla Khan”, componimento pubblicato nel 1816, caratterizzato da svariate sfaccettature e in grado di offrire, quindi, diverse possibili interpretazioni. La critica lo ha prevalentemente analizzato, sotto il profilo filosofico, dalla prospettiva platonica, tralasciando quasi del tutto gli influssi neoplatonici di cui risente e le fonti neoplatoniche nei confronti delle quali mostra un debito: le Enneadi di Plotino, gli Oracoli Caldaici di Psello e De Antro Nympharum di Porfirio. Fra i simboli e le immagini di cui è pervasa la poesia, particolare attenzione va prestata al “pleasure dome”, che rappresenta la riconciliazione degli opposti e il luogo in cui il molteplice converge in un tutto armonioso, nell’unità. Il “pleasure dome” si configura anche come il luogo ideale per avere ispirazioni e visioni, oltre che per sperimentare la sensazione di profonda gioia, che Coleridge associa con lo stato di comunione con la natura o con l’Assoluto. In altre parole, seguendo la lettura neoplatonica, il “pleasure-dome” sarebbe il luogo privilegiato per entrare in contatto con l’Assoluto, per provare l’estasi. La componente del sacro può essere trovata anche nel “deep romantic chasm”, definito come un luogo selvaggio, sacro e incantato, caratterizzato dalla combinazione di elementi fra loro contrapposti, come il naturale e il soprannaturale, il naturale e l’artificiale, il bene e il male. Un’altra immagine particolarmente significativa è quella delle “caverns measureless to man”, dato che, nei tempi antichi, le caverne simboleggiavano tanto il mondo materiale quanto i poteri invisibili e in esse si celebravano i riti correlati ai misteri. L’immagine della caverna compare in svariate opere platoniche e neoplatoniche, ad esempio il Fedo di Platone e De Antro Nympharum di Porfirio. Le presenze demoniache in “Kubla Khan” sono altrettanto importanti. Esse si ravvisano nei seguenti personaggi: il “dæmon-lover”, la “damsel with a dulcimer” e, soprattutto, il poeta ispirato e posseduto, caratterizzato da “flashing eyes” e “floating hair”. Il “dæmon-lover”, pianto da una donna, è di chiara ispirazione neoplatonica e, inoltre, l’immagine di donne che piangono i loro amanti-demoni non è rara nelle poesie di Coleridge. Un’altra figura femminile dal potere ispiratore è la “damsel with a dulcimer”, poco oltre definita come una “Abyssinian Maid”. Questo personaggio è associato al motivo della musica, importante sia nella metafisica neoplatonica sia in “Kubla Khan”, in quanto la musica udita dal poeta nella visione dell’Abyssinian maid, se solo egli fosse in grado di riviverla, lo potrebbe infiammare di passione creativa che gli darebbe “flashing eyes” e “floating hair”. Gli occhi di fiamma e i capelli al vento sono le caratteristiche attribuite, nella poesia, al personaggio del poeta ispirato e posseduto, di solito studiato dalla critica in relazione ai dialoghi di Platone, Ion e Fedro. In tali opere si afferma che i poeti concepiscono splendide poesie non grazie alle loro abilità poetiche ma grazie alle Muse, da cui sono ispirati e posseduti. Se Platone è certamente una fonte, non è comunque la sola, dal momento che l’ispirazione e la possessione divina vengono affrontate anche da Psello negli Oracoli Caldaici. Secondo la lettura neoplatonica, perciò, il poeta raffigurato in “Kubla Khan” è un chiaro esempio di ispirazione demoniaca o, secondo la prospettiva plotiniana, è in uno stato di estasi. Infine, anche la rappresentazione del Paradiso così come emerge nella poesia sembra avere un debito verso fonti diverse. In primo luogo, esso è assimilabile agli Oracoli Caldaici, in cui viene descritto come il giardino delle contemplazioni e, in secondo luogo, può essere collegato all’idea plotiniana dell’incontro con l’Uno, da cui ha origine l’estasi. Il primo capitolo offre una cornice di riferimento sui reception studies e delinea lo sviluppo della teoria della ricezione, partendo dai contributi di diversi accademici e filosofi: in particolare Hans Robert Jauss, Wolfgang Iser, e Hans-Georg Gadamer. Il secondo capitolo affronta la ricezione e l’utilizzo dei Classici, del mito greco, delle tradizioni antiche del platonismo e del neoplatonismo da parte dei poeti romantici inglesi, mentre il terzo capitolo si concentra sulla fortuna del neoplatonismo in epoca romantica, sugli elementi principali di questa filosofia antica e su come essi pervadano anche temi e motivi romantici, come il viaggio circolare e la condizione di alienazione dell’uomo moderno. Il caso specifico di Coleridge e la sua relazione con il mondo classico vengono presentati nel capitolo quarto, che si focalizza principalmente sull’influsso delle teorie neoplatoniche sul pensiero del poeta-filosofo, con particolare attenzione all’elaborazione delle Dieci Tesi e di alcuni concetti fondamentali, come Fancy e Imagination, quest’ultima a sua volta differenziata in primary e secondary. Il capitolo quinto propone l’analisi neoplatonica di “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”, per quanto concerne i temi e i personaggi: il ciclo cosmico neoplatonico di emanazione e ritorno alla fonte, la distinzione fra i molti e l’Uno e gli agenti spirituali e demoniaci. Il capitolo sesto si apre con l’analisi dell’influsso del neoplatonismo su Coleridge attraverso la mediazione dei Platonici di Cambridge e, nello specifico, di Ralph Cudworth, da cui il poeta ricava la distinzione tra Reason e Understanding, mentre la seconda parte del capitolo offre un’interpretazione neoplatonica delle “Conversation Poems” e di “Religious Musings”. Infine, il settimo e ultimo capitolo propone la lettura neoplatonica di “Kubla Khan”, un’opera complessa i cui simboli e le cui immagini evocano un numerose fonti, non da ultime quelle neoplatoniche.
Risonanze antiche nel pensiero e nella poesia di un romantico: S. T. Coleridge e il neoplatonismo
2019
Abstract
ABSTRACT The PhD thesis Risonanze antiche nel pensiero e nella poesia di un Romantico: S. T. Coleridge e il neoplatonismo originates in the field of the so-called reception studies and aims at analysing the influence of Neoplatonism in general and Plotinus in particular on S. T. Coleridge’s thought and works. An extensive and thorough study of this type has never been carried out before. Today Coleridge’s status as a philosopher is generally recognised. However, although critics have concentrated on the relationships between Coleridge and several thinkers and philosophical theories (first of all, Plato and German Idealism), at present, the interest in his debt towards Neoplatonic doctrines emerges in no major critical study of the poet. In general, the influence of this ancient philosophy on Coleridge appears only as a reference in monographs concerning other aspects of his literary and speculative activity, while specific works about the relationship between the poet and Neoplatonism are scanty. This dissertation intends to fill in this critical gap, by proposing an interpretation of Coleridge’s philosophical system and poems from a Neoplatonic perspective. The focus of the analysis is, therefore, on how Neoplatonism has influenced the origin of his most important philosophical concepts, discussed in Biographia Literaria (1817) and other prose works, as well as on how it has played a fundamental role in the composition of some of his poems. As far as Coleridge’s philosophical concepts are concerned, the Neoplatonic references in Biographia Literaria are more than a few. First of all, allusions to Plotinus emerge in Coleridge’s investigation of the concept of philosophical consciousness, in the characteristics attributed to the so-called transcendental philosopher and in his elaboration of the Ten Theses in Chapter XII. The Ten Theses can be read through the Plotinian lens (and not just in relation to Schelling, as scholars have generally done). The parallelism with Plotinus is particularly evident in the sixth thesis. Here, indeed, the principle enunciated by Coleridge, the I AM, shares similarities with the Plotinian second hypostasis, the Nous, or Intelligence. Also Coleridge’s distinction between Fancy and Imagination has its roots in the ancient philosophical tradition. Among other thinkers, also in this case, Plotinus is of particular importance, since his conception of Imagination can be considered a predecessor of Coleridge’s. Both philosophers conceive Imagination as a shaping spirit and divide it into two sub-types: the ancient philosopher distinguishes sensible and conceptual imagination, the Romantic differentiates between primary and secondary Imagination. Another important opposition in Coleridge is that between Reason and Understanding, which he derives from the Cambridge Platonists, in particular Ralph Cudworth. Cudworth highlights the limits of Understanding while he identifies the unity between Reason and the divine, defining the former as the first participation of God. In the same way, not only in Biographia Literaria but also in Table Talk, The Friend and Aids to Reflection, as well as in his letters, Coleridge talks about this distinction and identifies Reason as the highest human faculty. Neoplatonism, however, is not only a presence in Coleridge’s philosophic production. Neoplatonic themes, images, symbols and figures appear in some of his poems too, for example in “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (in the 1798 and 1817 versions), the “Conversation Poems” (written between 1795 and 1798), “Religious Musings” (composed between 1794 and 1796), and “Kubla Khan” (published in 1816). In order to retrieve the Neoplatonic roots of these texts, it is necessary to bear in mind the principal sources of this ancient philosophy, namely the Enneads by Plotinus, the dialogue De operatione daemonum and the Chaldean Oracles by Micheal Psellus, On the Ægyptians Mystieries by Iamblichus and On the Cave of Nymphs by Porphyry. From these works, Coleridge derives many themes and characters, which he employs, more or less explicitly, in his poems. However, Coleridge is not the only poet of his age influenced by ancient philosophies and traditions. Indeed, the Romantic period is characterised by a Hellenic revival, in particular of Greek myth. This renovated interest in ancient Greece is to be considered, firstly, as part of the Romantic reaction against the rationalistic and mechanicistic vision of the world and man which was dominant in the eighteenth century and, secondly, as an aspect of the primitivism and idealism which spread in Europe at that time. Poets such as Blake, Wordsworth, Keats, Byron, and Shelley employ classical myths in literary works in which also references to Platonism and Neoplatonism can be found. As a matter of fact, there are several parallelisms between Neoplatonism and Romanticism. First of all, the Neoplatonic circle of emanation of the “many” from the One and their return to the source (or epistrophe) should be taken into account. The relationship between the One and the many is at the centre of the Enneads, where Plotinus explains that, through emanation, the One overflows into an other and so into all existing things, through a series of stages, called hypostases – first, mind, then soul and, at the farthest possible end, the material universe. The hypostases descend along a scale of increasing remoteness from the One, thus a scale of increasing division and multiplicity. However, what Plotinus calls “individual souls”, once descended into corporeity, feel a deep sense of nostalgia for the One and so they desire to return to it. The Neoplatonic circle mirrors the Romantic circular journey, which begins with the departure from the source, or the separation from the initial union with Nature, leads to the fall into multiplicity and ends with final reconciliation. Moreover, nostalgia is a distinctive feature of both Neoplatonism and Romanticism. Actually, modern man is more and more distant from the early unity with Nature and, as a consequence, experiments a condition of alienation and longing for his former state. From this perspective, he can be compared to the character of the wandering homesick man, as testified not only in the philosophy but also in the literature of that period. Meaningful examples of this figure appear in the Lyrical Ballads. The most important representation is of course offered by the Ancient Mariner, a character alienated in consequence of the crime he committed: the unmotivated killing of the Albatross, which can be considered a crime against Nature and the laws of hospitality. Neoplatonism provides the metaphysical basis for “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”. Some of the Neoplatonic allusions are unambiguous, at least in the 1817 version (published in Sibylline Leaves), thanks to the adding of the Gloss, while others are more cryptic. Firstly, as far as the distinction between the One and the many is concerned, it is worth noticing that, in “The Rime”, the One coincides with God, while the many are numerous – both animals and human beings. In the animal world, following the hierarchical system typical of Neoplatonism, the many are divided into beings of the highest level, living in the sky, with the Albatross on top, followed by the birds whose jargoning is heard in Part the Fifth, and beings of the lowest level, that is, the water snakes. Also the classification of the human characters is related to Neoplatonic sources, in particular the categorisation of men proposed by Plotinus in the Enneads, where men are divided into three orders, according to their behaviours and personalities. In addition, Neoplatonic allusions can be seen in the structure of the poem. As a matter of fact, the Neoplatonic circle is reflected in the tripartite process of change undergone by the Ancient Mariner (from sin, through penance, to repentance and redemption). If the Neoplatonic circle of emanation ends with the epistrophe, different types of return are present in “The Rime”. The first is that of the angelic spirits to the Absolute (which takes place in an atmosphere dominated by light and music – two important elements in Neoplatonic metaphysics). The second is the return of the Ancient Mariner to his homeland. Moreover, in this journey home, the Mariner experiences a particular condition: he is cast into a state of trance which may be associated with Plotinian ecstasy, the moment in which the sensible and the intelligible meet. Apart from the Enneads, there are other underlying philosophical sources in the composition of “The Rime”, namely the dialogue De operatione daemonum, whose author, Psellus, is mentioned in the Gloss. The ancient philosopher classifies dæmons into six species, according to their abodes, and provides an accurate description of these varieties. From this text, Coleridge takes the classification of the dæmons of the elements, referred to in the Gloss (added in the 1817 edition) and of which several examples occur in the poem. Even though they are more implicit, allusions to Neoplatonism can be found in the 1798 version, too. In it there are subterranean reminiscences of Thomas Taylor, the English Neoplatonist, the most important translator of Neoplatonic mysticism, whose theories Coleridge is familiar with. The references to Taylor are linked to the figure of the torch-bearer, a character appearing in his Dissertation on the Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries, where he is identified as the interpreter of mysteries. The image of the torch is central in a passage of the 1798 version, but then removed in the following editions. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” is, therefore, strongly influenced by Neoplatonism. However, it is not the only case. Neoplatonic themes and images can be found in the “Conversation Poems” and “Religious Musings” as well. In these texts, Neoplatonic references are not just confined to the ancient philosophers, but appear also in the mediation of the Cambridge Platonists, those thinkers Coleridge would define as “plotinists”, in particular Ralph Cudworth. “The Conversation Poems” can be considered a good example of the representation of Coleridge’s Neoplatonic poetics and, like other important poems of his, show several Neoplatonic elements. As regards their form, it should be noticed that they have a tripartite and circular structure which recalls the Neoplatonic circle. As for themes and images, there are several parallelisms as well. The first poem analysed in this thesis, “The Eolian Harp”, provides numerous examples. This text is representative of Coleridge’s revisionary tendency, as he reworks it many times. Also the title was modified, and it is in the final one that there is a hint at Plotinus, who, in the Ennead IV, mentions the harp. In every version, however, there are Neoplatonic references, more or less stressed. The poem presents a harmonious universe, a holistic vision of Nature and pantheistic allusions. Moreover, in the “Errata” contained in Sibylline Leaves, Coleridge adds a passage about the One Life within us and abroad that the poet probably derives from his Neoplatonic studies. Another element connected to Neoplatonic theories is the image of joyance, which recalls Plotinian ecstasy and contemplation. Several of the elements mentioned above are found in the other “Conversation Poems”. In “This Lime-tree Bower my Prison” (1797) there are pantheistic allusions and references to spirits and a sense of deep joy. “Frost at Midnight” (1798) is fraught with Neoplatonic echoes, such as the figure of the Almighty and pantheistic suggestions. “The Nightingale” (1798) expresses similar ideas; in particular the character of the “night-wandering man” shares common traits with the souls that, in Plotinus, feel nostalgia for the One and long to return to it. In “Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement” (1795), the poet finds, in the sensible objects of Nature, the way to reach the Spirit of Nature through Imagination. Finally, in “Fears in Solitude” (1798), Nature is associated with sweetness and an atmosphere of joy. “Religious Musings” (composed between 1794 and 1796) resonates with Neoplatonic elements combined with Christian ones. Here, the Almighty is defined as “the ever-living One”, is associated with an atmosphere of light and opposed to the “wretched Many”. Furthermore, there are references to adoration, contemplation and ecstasy. Neoplatonic motifs and images are also present in “Kubla Khan” (published in 1816), a multifaceted poem open to different interpretations. Some critics have analysed it from a Platonic perspective, thus neglecting the Neoplatonic influences almost completely. However, the images present in “Kubla Khan” can be read through Neoplatonic lenses, too. The sources Coleridge is indebted to are the Enneads, the Chaldean Oracles and On the Cave of Nymphs. Among the numerous images and symbols, particular attention should be paid to the “pleasure-dome”, which represents the reconciliation of opposites and where multiplicity converges into a harmonious whole, or unity. It is also the ideal place to have inspirations and visions and to experience the sensation of deep delight, which Coleridge associates with the ultimate community with Nature or with the Absolute. In other words, according to the Neoplatonic reading, the pleasure-dome is the privileged abode in which to come into contact with the Absolute and feel ecstasy. A sacred component can be found also in the “deep romantic chasm”, defined as a savage place, holy and enchanted and characterised by the combination of different or opposite elements, such as the natural and the supernatural, the natural and the artificial, good and evil. A particularly significant image consists in the “caverns measureless to man”, as, in ancient times, caverns symbolised the material world as well as invisible powers and were the place in which rites related to mysteries were celebrated. The image of the cavern appears in several Platonic and Neoplatonic works, for example Plato’s Fedo and Porphyry’s On the Cave of Nymphs. Dæmonic presences in “Kubla Khan” are equally important: the dæmon-lover, the damsel with a dulcimer, and, above all, the inspired and possessed poet with flashing eyes and floating hair. The dæmon-lover, wailed by a woman, is of clear Neoplatonic inspiration. Moreover, the figure of women wailing for their dæmon-lovers is not uncommon in Coleridge’s poems. An example of inspiring woman is the damsel with a dulcimer, later defined as an Abyssinian Maid. This character is associated with the motif of the power of music, which has evident Neoplatonic resonances. In the poem, the music that the poet heard in the vision of the Abyssinian maid, could he recover it, would stir him into a creating passion, which would give him “flashing eyes” and “floating hair”. Indeed, one of the most striking images in “Kubla Khan” is that of the inspired and possessed poet. The general tendency in critical studies is to relate this character to Plato and his dialogues Ion and Pheadrus. In these works, it is suggested that poets conceive beautiful poems not thanks to their artistic skills, but because they are inspired and possessed by Muses. However, Plato is not the only source. We must add The Chaldean Oracles, in which Psellus investigates divine inspiration and possession in their Chaldean origins. According to a Neoplatonic reading, therefore, the poet represented in “Kubla Khan” is an example of daemonic inspiration or, from a Plotinian perspective, someone who is experimenting ecstasy. Finally, also the representation of Paradise in “Kubla Khan” seems indebted to several Neoplatonic sources, such as The Chaldean Oracles, in which Paradise is described as the garden of contemplation, and Plotinus’ idea, that Paradise can be linked to the encounter with the One, from which ecstasy arises. The thesis consists of seven main chapters. Chapter one offers an introduction to the field of reception studies, by taking into account the delineation of the development of reception theories and the contributions of important scholars and philosophers, such as Hans Robert Jauss, Wolfgang Iser, and Hans-Georg Gadamer. Chapter two focuses on the reception and uses of the Classics, Greek myth and the ancient philosophical traditions of Platonism and Neoplatonism, in particular on the part of English Romantic poets. Chapter three concentrates on the fortune of Neoplatonism in the Romantic period, on the main themes of this ancient philosophy and how they emerge in Romantic motifs, such as the circular voyage and the condition of alienation of modern man. The specific case of Coleridge and his links with the classical world are at the centre of chapter four, whose main focus is on Neoplatonic influences on Coleridge’s thought, in particular on the formulation of the Ten Theses and fundamental concepts, mainly in the Biographia Literaria, such as Fancy and primary and secondary Imagination. Chapter five proposes a Neoplatonic reading of “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”, in terms of themes and figures, namely the Neoplatonic cosmic circle of emanation and epistrophe, the distinction between the One and the many, and spiritual and dæmonic agencies. Chapter six begins with the analysis of the influence of the Cambridge Platonist Ralph Cudworth on Coleridge’s distinction between Reason and Understanding, while the second part concentrates on the Neoplatonic analysis of the “Conversation Poems” and “Religious Musings”. The last chapter proposes the Neoplatonic interpretation of “Kubla Khan”, a complex work whose images and symbols are indebted to several sources, including Neoplatonism.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/153663
URN:NBN:IT:UNIPR-153663