The Thesis aims to test the theoretical validity and the practical effectiveness of the criminal law techniques of cultural heritage protection. The topic of protection of cultural heritage has been the subject of study by all branches of legal science. Nonetheless, returning to places already explored does not constitute a useless effort for the criminal lawyer. Indeed, the urgency of deepening research in that branch of the penal system which constitutes the so-called “criminal law of cultural heritage” is increasingly felt. In fact, for several years now, the inadequacy of empirical-criminological knowledge and the consequent insufficiency of the regulatory framework with respect to the pervasiveness, economic relevance and social harmfulness assumed by the phenomenon of crime in the antiquities and art sector has been evident. The awareness of the peculiarity of the ontological and legal status of cultural goods and landscape as “testimonies with civilizational value” and the consequent recognition of their collective, supranational and intergenerational character, require the jurist, in general, to valorise the natural correlation between their protection and the guarantee of fundamental human rights and to the criminal lawyer, in particular, to identify the adequate protection techniques to safeguard the complex of tangible and intangible values that animate them. The importance of a reorganization of the matter has also recently been grasped by the legislator, who, following a long and complex reform process, promulgates the Law. no. 22 of the 9th March 2022, containing “Provisions regarding crimes against cultural heritage”. On the one hand, the novel constitutes a response to the increasingly felt need to fully implement the directives that emanate from the Constitutional Charter, in a context of progressive valorisation of the so-called “cultural” rights as true fundamental human rights. Having acknowledged the insufficiency of a system based on the paradigm of protection of traditional assets, focused on the purely economic importance of the protected goods, the Law. no. 22/2022 represents a first attempt to develop specific strategies for the protection of cultural heritage, which identify the fulcrum of the criminal disvalue in the offense that criminal conduct causes to the free expression of the purely cultural function of the cultural and landscape goods in favour of the “full development of the human person”, both as an individual and as a member of a community. On the other hand, the reform aims to satisfy the need to deal with transnational criminal phenomena with strategies shared on a common basis, conforming the Italian legal system to the provisions contained in the main european and international sources, starting from the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Offences relating to Cultural Property, opened for signature in Nicosia on the 19th May 2017 and ratified by Italy with the Law. no. 6 of the 21st January 2022. The analysis of the recent legislative text undoubtedly represents a stimulating opportunity to reflect on the strategies for the enforcement of fundamental human rights and to question ourselves on issues of great moment: the transnationality of the criminal phenomena to deal with, which go beyond the physical and legal borders of the country; the evolution of the subjects and processes of normative production, with the growing centrality of international and supranational sources even in a sector such as criminal law, which has always been anchored to purely autarchic dynamics; the evolution of protection techniques and forms of liability in a context of progressive globalization of law. Ultimately, this has to do with the crucial issue of the relationship between domestic criminal law, on the one hand, and international law and European Union law, on the other. But there is more. Studying the “criminal law of cultural heritage” also means intersecting relevant topics of general theory. And so, analysing the object of protection and asking, more precisely, whether and how the legal interest relating to the historical or artistic value of the cultural goods can guide the construction (in a perspective de iure condendo) and the re-construction (in a interpretative perspective, de iure condito) of the individual incriminating cases, we can reflect on the status in our legal system of the controversial concept of “legal interest”, understood both as a critical-selective tool in the choice of what can legitimately rise to the level of a crime and as a relational referent of the principle of harmfulness. Then, by meditating on the structural formulation of the offences in the current system, there is the opportunity to deal with some of the most serious pathologies of contemporary criminal law: the disheartening insufficiency of legislative drafting and the crisis of the principle of legal certainty in criminal matters; the abundance of regulatory elements and of actual blank criminal laws; the use – and abuse – of cases of “mere disobedience” towards administrative requirements; the increasingly less prudent use of criminal offences involving abstract or even presumed danger; the relationship – and the overlap – between criminal protection and administrative protection. Finally, the work aims to evaluate the compatibility of the criminal law armamentarium set up to safeguard the cultural heritage with the traditional guarantee principles of criminal law. Precisely from the aforementioned perspective – despite the awareness of the unavoidability of further reform interventions, hopefully organic – it is appropriate to keep our guard up against the excesses of the prevailing “pan-criminalization”. In a sector like the one in question – marked by the eminently evocative importance of the protected good – there is, in fact, the risk that criminal law will be used for merely symbolic purposes, according to the “populist” logic that behind the simplifying mask of the multiplication of the offences and the stiffening of the sanctioning responses conceals the absence of a serious political will to combat a criminal phenomenon in its complexity. On the contrary, it is appropriate to contain criminal law intervention within the limits of extrema ratio, setting up – in compliance with the principles of subsidiarity, merit of punishment and fragmentation – a progressive and flexible protection system, which is capable of making conscious use of the specific tools of other sectors of the legal system, capable of guaranteeing more effective and efficient protection for cultural heritage, both in the preventive and repressive phases.
La Tesi mira a saggiare la validità teorica e l’efficacia pratica delle tecniche di tutela penale del patrimonio culturale. Il tema della protezione del patrimonio culturale è stato oggetto di studio da parte di tutte le branche della scienza giuridica. Cionondimeno, ritornare a frequentare luoghi già esplorati non costituisce, per il penalista, uno sforzo inutile. Anzi, l’urgenza di approfondire la ricerca in quel ramo (o, quantomeno, in quella “nicchia”) del sistema penale che costituisce il c.d. “diritto penale del patrimonio culturale” è sempre più avvertita. Già da parecchi anni, infatti, appare evidente l’inadeguatezza delle conoscenze empirico-criminologiche e la conseguente insufficienza del quadro normativo rispetto alla pervasività, alla rilevanza economica e alla dannosità sociale assunte dal fenomeno della criminalità nel settore delle antichità e dell’arte. La consapevolezza della peculiarità dello statuto ontologico e giuridico dei beni culturali e paesaggistici quali “testimonianze aventi valore di civiltà” e il conseguente riconoscimento del carattere collettivo, sovranazionale e intergenerazionale degli stessi, impongono al giurista, in generale, di valorizzare la naturale correlazione tra il loro presidio e la garanzia dei diritti fondamentali dell’uomo e al penalista, in particolare, di individuare tecniche di tutela adeguate a salvaguardare il complesso di valori tangibili ed intangibili che li animano. L’importanza di un riordino della materia è stata recentemente colta anche dal legislatore, il quale, all’esito di un iter di riforma piuttosto lungo e articolato – ma, forse, non altrettanto meditato – ha emanato la l. 9 marzo 2022, n. 22, recante “Disposizioni in materia di reati contro il patrimonio culturale”. D’un canto, la novella costituisce una risposta all’esigenza di dare piena attuazione alle direttive che promanano dalla Carta costituzionale, in un contesto di progressiva valorizzazione dei diritti c.d. “culturali” quali veri e propri diritti fondamentali dell’uomo. Preso atto dell’insufficienza di un sistema fondato sul paradigma di tutela dei beni tradizionali, incentrato sul rilievo meramente economico dei beni protetti, la l. n. 22/2022 rappresenta un primo tentativo di sviluppare strategie specifiche di protezione del patrimonio culturale, che identifichino il fulcro del disvalore penale nell’offesa che la condotta criminale arreca al libero esplicarsi della funzione prettamente culturale del bene a favore del “pieno sviluppo della persona umana”, sia come singolo sia come esponente di una comunità. Dall’altro canto, la riforma mira a soddisfare la necessità di fronteggiare i fenomeni criminali transnazionali con strategie condivise su base comune, conformando l’ordinamento italiano alle disposizioni contenute nelle principali fonti europee e internazionali, a partire dall’attuazione della Convenzione del Consiglio d’Europa sulle infrazioni relative ai beni culturali, aperta alla firma a Nicosia il 19 maggio 2017 e ratificata dall’Italia con la l. 21 gennaio 2022, n. 6. L’analisi del recente testo legislativo rappresenta indubbiamente una stimolante occasione per riflettere sulle strategie di enforcement dei diritti fondamentali dell’uomo e per interrogarsi su problemi di grande momento: la transnazionalità dei fenomeni criminali da affrontare, che superano i confini fisici e giuridici statali; l’evoluzione dei soggetti e dei processi di produzione normativa, con la crescente centralità delle fonti internazionali e sovranazionali anche in un settore come il diritto penale, da sempre ancorato a dinamiche prettamente autarchiche; l’evoluzione delle tecniche di tutela (non solo penalistiche) e delle forme di responsabilità in un contesto di progressiva globalizzazione del diritto. Si tratta, in ultima analisi, del tema cruciale del rapporto fra diritto penale interno, da un lato, e diritto internazionale e diritto dell’Unione europea, dall’altro. Ma vi è di più. Studiare il “diritto penale del patrimonio culturale” vuol dire anche intersecare rilevanti argomenti di teoria generale. E così, analizzando l’oggetto della tutela e chiedendosi, più precisamente, se e in che modo l’interesse giuridico relativo al valore storico o artistico del bene culturale possa orientare la costruzione (in una prospettiva de iure condendo) e la ri-costruzione (in una prospettiva de iure condito, interpretativa) delle singole fattispecie incriminatrici, si può riflettere sullo statuto nel nostro ordinamento del controverso concetto di “bene giuridico”, inteso sia quale strumento critico-selettivo nella scelta di ciò che può legittimamente assurgere a reato sia quale referente relazionale del principio di offensività. Meditando, poi, sulla formulazione strutturale delle singole fattispecie nel sistema vigente, si ha l’opportunità di misurarsi con talune delle patologie più gravi del diritto penale contemporaneo: la sconfortante insufficienza del drafting legislativo e la crisi del principio di tassatività in materia penale; l’abbondanza di elementi normativi e di vere e proprie norme penali in bianco; l’uso – e l’abuso – di fattispecie di “mera disobbedienza” nei confronti delle prescrizioni amministrative; il ricorso sempre meno oculato a fattispecie di reato di pericolo astratto o financo presunto; il rapporto – e la sovrapposizione – tra la tutela di tipo penale e la tutela di tipo amministrativo. Il lavoro mira, infine, a vagliare la compatibilità dell’armamentario penalistico predisposto a salvaguardia del patrimonio culturale con i tradizionali principi di garanzia del diritto penale. Proprio nell’ottica da ultimo cennata – pur nella consapevolezza dell’ineludibilità di ulteriori interventi di riforma, auspicabilmente organici – è opportuno tenere alta la guardia contro gli eccessi dell’imperante “panpenalizzazione”. In un settore come quello di cui si tratta – segnato dal rilievo eminentemente evocativo del bene protetto – si corre, infatti, il rischio che il diritto penale venga impiegato per finalità meramente simboliche, secondo la logica “populistica” che dietro la maschera semplificatoria della moltiplicazione delle fattispecie incriminatrici e dell’irrigidimento delle risposte sanzionatorie cela l’assenza di una seria volontà politica di contrastare un fenomeno criminale nella sua complessità. Risulta, al contrario, opportuno contenere l’intervento penalistico entro i limiti dell’extrema ratio, predisponendo – in ossequio ai principi di sussidiarietà, di meritevolezza della pena e di frammentarietà – un sistema di tutela progressivo e flessibile, che sappia fare un uso consapevole degli strumenti propri di altri settori dell’ordinamento, capaci di garantire al patrimonio culturale una tutela più efficace ed efficiente, sia in fase preventiva che in fase repressiva.
La tutela penale del patrimonio culturale
SANTORO, UGO
2024
Abstract
The Thesis aims to test the theoretical validity and the practical effectiveness of the criminal law techniques of cultural heritage protection. The topic of protection of cultural heritage has been the subject of study by all branches of legal science. Nonetheless, returning to places already explored does not constitute a useless effort for the criminal lawyer. Indeed, the urgency of deepening research in that branch of the penal system which constitutes the so-called “criminal law of cultural heritage” is increasingly felt. In fact, for several years now, the inadequacy of empirical-criminological knowledge and the consequent insufficiency of the regulatory framework with respect to the pervasiveness, economic relevance and social harmfulness assumed by the phenomenon of crime in the antiquities and art sector has been evident. The awareness of the peculiarity of the ontological and legal status of cultural goods and landscape as “testimonies with civilizational value” and the consequent recognition of their collective, supranational and intergenerational character, require the jurist, in general, to valorise the natural correlation between their protection and the guarantee of fundamental human rights and to the criminal lawyer, in particular, to identify the adequate protection techniques to safeguard the complex of tangible and intangible values that animate them. The importance of a reorganization of the matter has also recently been grasped by the legislator, who, following a long and complex reform process, promulgates the Law. no. 22 of the 9th March 2022, containing “Provisions regarding crimes against cultural heritage”. On the one hand, the novel constitutes a response to the increasingly felt need to fully implement the directives that emanate from the Constitutional Charter, in a context of progressive valorisation of the so-called “cultural” rights as true fundamental human rights. Having acknowledged the insufficiency of a system based on the paradigm of protection of traditional assets, focused on the purely economic importance of the protected goods, the Law. no. 22/2022 represents a first attempt to develop specific strategies for the protection of cultural heritage, which identify the fulcrum of the criminal disvalue in the offense that criminal conduct causes to the free expression of the purely cultural function of the cultural and landscape goods in favour of the “full development of the human person”, both as an individual and as a member of a community. On the other hand, the reform aims to satisfy the need to deal with transnational criminal phenomena with strategies shared on a common basis, conforming the Italian legal system to the provisions contained in the main european and international sources, starting from the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Offences relating to Cultural Property, opened for signature in Nicosia on the 19th May 2017 and ratified by Italy with the Law. no. 6 of the 21st January 2022. The analysis of the recent legislative text undoubtedly represents a stimulating opportunity to reflect on the strategies for the enforcement of fundamental human rights and to question ourselves on issues of great moment: the transnationality of the criminal phenomena to deal with, which go beyond the physical and legal borders of the country; the evolution of the subjects and processes of normative production, with the growing centrality of international and supranational sources even in a sector such as criminal law, which has always been anchored to purely autarchic dynamics; the evolution of protection techniques and forms of liability in a context of progressive globalization of law. Ultimately, this has to do with the crucial issue of the relationship between domestic criminal law, on the one hand, and international law and European Union law, on the other. But there is more. Studying the “criminal law of cultural heritage” also means intersecting relevant topics of general theory. And so, analysing the object of protection and asking, more precisely, whether and how the legal interest relating to the historical or artistic value of the cultural goods can guide the construction (in a perspective de iure condendo) and the re-construction (in a interpretative perspective, de iure condito) of the individual incriminating cases, we can reflect on the status in our legal system of the controversial concept of “legal interest”, understood both as a critical-selective tool in the choice of what can legitimately rise to the level of a crime and as a relational referent of the principle of harmfulness. Then, by meditating on the structural formulation of the offences in the current system, there is the opportunity to deal with some of the most serious pathologies of contemporary criminal law: the disheartening insufficiency of legislative drafting and the crisis of the principle of legal certainty in criminal matters; the abundance of regulatory elements and of actual blank criminal laws; the use – and abuse – of cases of “mere disobedience” towards administrative requirements; the increasingly less prudent use of criminal offences involving abstract or even presumed danger; the relationship – and the overlap – between criminal protection and administrative protection. Finally, the work aims to evaluate the compatibility of the criminal law armamentarium set up to safeguard the cultural heritage with the traditional guarantee principles of criminal law. Precisely from the aforementioned perspective – despite the awareness of the unavoidability of further reform interventions, hopefully organic – it is appropriate to keep our guard up against the excesses of the prevailing “pan-criminalization”. In a sector like the one in question – marked by the eminently evocative importance of the protected good – there is, in fact, the risk that criminal law will be used for merely symbolic purposes, according to the “populist” logic that behind the simplifying mask of the multiplication of the offences and the stiffening of the sanctioning responses conceals the absence of a serious political will to combat a criminal phenomenon in its complexity. On the contrary, it is appropriate to contain criminal law intervention within the limits of extrema ratio, setting up – in compliance with the principles of subsidiarity, merit of punishment and fragmentation – a progressive and flexible protection system, which is capable of making conscious use of the specific tools of other sectors of the legal system, capable of guaranteeing more effective and efficient protection for cultural heritage, both in the preventive and repressive phases.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/165675
URN:NBN:IT:UNICT-165675