1. Introduction The thesis aims to investigate the issue relating to the link between Environmental regulation and the corporate financial performance, taking into account the mediation role played by innovation as a variable influenced by regulation and, in turn, impacting on performance of companies. In the field of research concerning the relationship between regulation, innovation and corporate performance, the work therefore focuses on the Environmental regulation activity of policy makers. After a long period of time in which Environmental regulation was considered to exert a negative effect on businesses, due to the generation of compliance costs that negatively impact economic performance, two authors have provided a new theoretical baseline on this relationship (Porter & van der Linde, 1995). Their intuition, already known as "Porter's Hypothesis" (PH), provided a conceptual vision aimed to overturning the previous opinion of researchers and managers on the negative impact carried out by Environmental regulation on companies, in order to assume the opposite perspective, according to which, a well-designed regulation, even if it increases compliance costs, is at the same time able to stimulate business innovation, useful for offsetting compliance costs and improving business performance (micro perspective) and, consequently, also competitiveness at the country level (macro perspective). Porter's assumption has attracted great interest, fueling a large scientific debate. in this regard, the positions of the researchers were divided between those who accepted it in a critical sense, considering it incompatible with the hypothesis of companies that maximize profit (Palmer, K., 1995), and those who instead considered them an added value to the original theoretical framework. In an attempt to better classify theoretical and empirical approaches, the literature has disaggregated PH into three versions, weak, strong, and narrow (Jaffe & Palmer, 1997): • • Weak hypothesis (Weak PH). Environmental regulation, if well designed, will increase the rate of innovation in companies, enhancing also environmental benefits; • • Strong hypothesis (strong PH). The innovation induced by the Regulation will lead to greater productivity, profitability and competitiveness of the companies; • • Narrow version (Narrow PH). Flexible environmental policy tools, focused on the result rather than on the production process, increase innovation and improve business performance. 2 The thesis is structured in five chapters, stages of a logical and consequential path, which is useful for understanding the implications of the investigated topic. The first one, is essential to address with a rigorous methodology, the arguments developed in the subsequent parts of the thesis, relating to the relationships between Regulation, innovation and competitiveness; in this chapter, we take into account the regulatory variety, the sectoral peculiarities, the possible ambivalent effects, the methodologies adopted and the results achieved. The second chapter describes the role of the main players in the innovation system, i.e., the state and companies. The State is the actor responsible for regulation, therefore it assumes a central role in terms of guidance and value creation in innovation systems. On the other hand, the description of the companies and the entrepreneur highlights their innovative DNA, capable of strategically interpreting the various dimensions of sustainability associated with innovation through the key concepts of business economics, such as the life cycle, competitive advantage and the value chains. The third chapter offers a complete overview of the relationship between regulation and innovation, highlighting a two-way relationship between them. This section of the thesis also highlights how the success of this relation depends on the distinctive feature of the various regulatory categories. These three chapters make up the first part of the work. The following chapters four and five, which forms the second part of the thesis, refer to the development of the research hypotheses and to the empirical analysis carried out. The fourth chapter proposes a coordinated reading of regulatory tools, scientific approaches and the evolution of the role of the players in the Regulatory and innovation system, with particular reference to Environmental regulation. After describing the policy makers portfolio of regulatory actions, and the impacts of Environmental regulation on innovation, both in terms of effects and in terms of rethinking the relationship between policy makers and companies, we will deepen Porter's hypothesis (PH), which is considered the first major contribution of business economics in contrast with the idea of "pollution paradise". In fact, the prescriptive indications of Porter and van der Linde formed the basis for the development of subsequent theoretical and empirical contributions aimed at enriching the original precept. The same are examined in the thesis by means of a literature review sorted by object of analysis, limits and possible directions of future research. The fifth chapter is dedicated to the empirical survey conducted on a sample of listed European companies in order to investigate the significance of the relationship 3 between Environmental regulation, innovation and corporate financial performance in the companies in the sample. The chapter, according to the typical structure of empirical investigations, describes the research design (sample, observation period, variables and analysis models), presents the results of the elaborations and closes with a discussion of the same. 2. Objectives and research questions The review of the empirical contributions on PH brings out the presence of different analysis models used by researchers and also the contradictory nature of the results achieved. for this reason, it was considered reasonable to assert that this contradiction is connected to the methodological systems used and that it can also be expressive of the effective existence of a very weak relationship between Environmental regulation and performance, taking into account the role of innovation. We also considered that the dynamic dimensions of PH were important, since the impacts along the chain of relationships underlying PH would increase with the time lag considered. In accordance with these premises, the thesis aims to provide a contribution to the literature related to the hypothesis of Porter (PH). To achieve this goal, we conducted an empirical analysis referring to the years 2014-2020 on a sample of listed European companies based in nine European countries and representative of nine different economic sectors, in order to test the following research hypotheses: • • H.1. There is a statistically significant, but weak, relationship between the stringency of Environmental regulation and the financial performance of firms (strong Porter's hypothesis). This relationship should be fostered by the innovation induced by Environmental regulation (Porter's weak hypothesis); • • H.2. The impact of Environmental regulation on the financial performance of firms, intensifies in the medium term (the relationship in H.1. grows if the time lag between the two variables increases). Therefore, our research hypotheses, taking into consideration the previous literature on the role of innovation, aim to verify to what extent the latter "interferes" on the relationship between Regulation and performance. For this reason, hypotheses H.1 and H.2. are examined by including innovation, through the specific composite indicator (EIS) developed by the EU (Hollanders, 2021), as a mediating variable of the relationship between Environmental regulation and corporate financial performance. In this way, we are able to jointly verify the two research hypotheses 4 with a single model, and this is the first methodological innovation we bring to the previous literature. Considering the direct impact of Environmental regulation in terms of additional costs for the firms, and also considering that our performance synthesis model based on TOPSIS applied to a composite set of indicators allows us to have two distinct performance scores (economic and financial), hypotheses H.1. and H.2 are tested, as well as with reference to the overall financial performance, also with reference to the specific economic and financial dimensions of the same, assuming that the impact of the Environmental regulations is more accentuated for the economic performance than for the financial performance. The two aforementioned main hypotheses H.1. and H.2, therefore, break down into two further sub-hypotheses: • • H.1.a) and H.2.a) referred to the economic performance score; • • H.1.b) and H.2.b) referred to the financial performance score. As we have already specified, the models are also tested considering "Country" and "Sector" as moderation variables. 3. Limitations of existing literature The contribution of Porter and van der Linde was the basis of the subsequent theoretical and empirical contributions, which are examined through the literature review presented in chapter IV of the thesis. This analysis of the theoretical assumptions and the effects of PH has allowed us to highlight progress and some still existing limitations, which can represent a starting point for future theoretical and empirical studies on the subject. In the thesis, the limits on PH are divided into two main categories: a) theoretical limits; b) empirical limits. It should be noted that this distinction is not an invitation to treat the macro-areas separately and does not suggest that they are not closely related. The purpose of the subdivision is to conceptually deconstruct the PH in order to identify all the key elements of the same in order to be able to observe them individually, stress them and reconfigure them in a functional systemic perspective to provide new value to the literature on the Porter Hypothesis. 5 a) Theoretical limits Four main categories of theoretical limits have been identified: 1. Characteristics of the firms: the investigation conducted on PH provide insignificant or even conflicting results due to a theoretical approach that does not consider the characteristics of the firm or the sector, which influence the dimensions of innovation and competitiveness. This conceptual approach is considered the source of a series of methodological problems, which have not yet been totally overcome (Lankoski, 2010); 2. Sustainability-oriented reporting tools, Governance conditions and training programs: compliance with Environmental regulations should not be the exclusive competence of a thematic manager, since it is more effective if it is agreed with other managers (e.g., financial managers and managers of process). A possible direction of future research could consider the environmental and social effects of corporate activity (for example, the Global Reporting Initiative), or the scores expressive of the Environment, Social, Governance (ESG) dimensions, as mediation or moderation variables. Furthermore, in order to avoid that profitable opportunities are seized only by large companies, it would be desirable to design training programs aimed at developing innovation and competitiveness potentially deriving from Environmental regulations; 3. The role of social-oriented and ultra-hybrid companies: Recent literature has focused on the so-called ultra-hybrid companies, which seek to achieve profit and social benefits at the same time. This balancing of objectives is reflected in the guiding values of corporate governance, which seeks to simultaneously achieve value for shareholders and value for the environment. this institutionalization of the social vocation has prompted some authors to define this type of enterprise as the forerunner of the fourth sector of the economy (Loprevite, 2020). Future research could deepen the study of the relationship between Environmental regulation, innovation and performance by including new hybrid business models, in order to verify whether the institutionalization of social orientation significantly affects the effects of the same relationship. 4. PH Observation Perspectives: the increase and variety of datasets (also open-data) available to research organizations, could favor a diversification of PH analyzes based on the field of observation, distinguishing them into: - macroeconomic, in accordance with the approach of competition between Nations; 6 - microeconomic, although this perspective is closest to the original formulation of PH and to Porter's formulations on competitive advantage, it is the least explored in the literature; - multilevel, a perspective capable of relating and measuring the mechanisms and levels of coordination between the two previous approaches (micro and macro), and between different levels of government. b) Empirical limits With reference to the limitations of an empirical nature, the review of the literature presented in the thesis has highlighted a series of methodological limitations that we have classified as follows: 1. Limited attention to the dynamic structure of PH. One of the main criticalities of PH is that of not adequately grasping the structure of the delays of the effects of the Regulation on the dependent variables. This limit is due in part to the reasons that inspired the supporters of the "pollution paradise" and in part to the reduced attention to sustainability issues. The new empirical studies that will take into account the structure of delay will be facilitated thanks to the greater number of databases available, which are an expression of institutional attention to the issues of sustainability and social awareness; 2. multidimensionality of the performance. Based on Porter's assumptions on the multidimensionality of the concept of innovation and corporate performance (already referred to above), an empirical limit can be identified in the focus of previous empirical studies on competitiveness expressed exclusively with macroeconomic variables, such as expenditure on R&D, Patents and Multi-Factor Productivity. This limit becomes more relevant if we consider the failure to measure the multidimensionality of innovative performance in the public sector. This gap that afflicts the chain of relationships between the dimensions of the PH is probably the result of a failure to develop an "innovation culture" within the regulatory bodies, with consequent repercussions also in terms of measuring their innovative performance. Despite the efforts of some institutions, no quantitative analyzes are available, and the recent existing indicator systems do not provide relevant information on the effectiveness of the regulatory framework on innovation (Alemanno, 2015; Deighton-Smith, 2016)1. The same goes for the multidimensional measurement of innovation within the public sector. In this area, there are numerous qualitative models (Kattel et al., n.d.) resulting from practice and innovation awards, as well as theoretical frameworks promoted by international organizations, but there is still no theoretical framework from which to draw inspiration to build up a system of measurement and evaluation similar to those adopted by the public sector for the measurement of performance. Moreover, the role of companies in the relationship between the regulatory system and innovation appears to be little explored, both in terms of feedback on compliance actions and in terms of interaction’s way between policy makers and companies. Some of these limits have been theoretically considered to be overcome by mission oriented innovation policies and global challenges (Mazzucato, 2018); however, empirical studies have not supported theoretical efforts. All this considered, the thesis suggests as a possible future line of research, the possibility of exploring and measuring the coordination capacity between policy makers and regulatory bodies, which should include the promotion and implementation of innovation among their main objectives. A viable idea may be to include the rate and dimensions of innovation in the impact assessments of the Regulation (both ex ante and ex post) in future analyses, setting timeframes dedicated to the review of the Regulation. 3. Selection of variables and diversification of operational research models. Despite the efforts of international organizations and policy makers, the synthetic variables expressing Environmental regulation are few and a part of the literature still uses proxies based on environmental compliance costs. these choices are not consistent with the original assumptions of the PH, and are not reliable in terms of validity of the results because the compliance costs may also depend on other factors (e.g., the obsolescence of the plants). Despite the progress regarding the formulation of composite indicators (already used in the literature), it still does not appear possible to compare the effectiveness of the single types of Environmental regulation and of the possible combinations of the same. The same goes for the expressive variables of innovation, which cannot be exhausted in R&D expenditure, environmental patents and successful patents, because innovation does not refer exclusively to the technological dimension but also to other dimensions (as already pointed out in the first part of the thesis). The challenge for researchers and Institutions is to find new variables expressing complexity and to experiment them in new operational research techniques to test the significance of PH. 4. Methododolgy Our research design aimed at testing the significance of the relationship between Environmental regulation, innovation and corporate financial performance, is described in the last chapter of the thesis with reference to the following three elements: a) The sample; b) The variables; c) Analysis models. a) The sample Our empirical analysis refers to the years 2014-2020 and is based on a sample of 782 listed European companies, extracted from Refinitiv® Eikon Datastream® (Https://Www.Refinitiv.Com/)2 The companies of the sample operating in nine different economic sectors3 and are based in nine European countries4. Therefore, they can be clustered both in terms of territory (different geographical position) and wealth (GDP and per capita GDP).5 b) The variables 1. The dependent variable Overall Financial Performance (FP_OV), in synthesized by TOPSIS6 (Bulgurcu, 2013; Hwang,C.L.; Yoon,K., 1981; Lin, C.,T., & Tsai, M., 2010; Roy & Patro, 2021), through a set of nine indicators thanks to which we have further divided the FP_OV into: economic performance (EP) and financial performance (FP); 2. The independent variable, i.e., the Environmental Policy Stringency Index (EPS), is a composite indicator of the stringency of environmental policies, useful for facilitating transnational and longitudinal empirical analyses. In accordance with the data-driven approach, the indicator includes various policy areas such as: climate and atmospheric pollutants, energy sector and transport. The policy indicator aggregates stringency across a selected set of environmental policies in order to create a composite measure of Environmental regulation stringency, suitable for cross-country comparisons. In this way, the creators of the indicator have obtained the widest coverage of OECD countries and, overall, the indicator considers tools and policies referred to sectors of primary environmental importance (Botta & Koźluk, 2014). 3. The mediation variable, the European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS), provides an annual comparative assessment of the research and innovation performance of EU Member States and the relative strengths and weaknesses of their research and innovation systems. The EIS distinguishes between 4 main activity types (framework conditions, investments, innovation activities and impacts) and 12 dimensions of innovation, capturing in total 32 indicators. Each area is composed by an equal number of indicators with identical weight in the Summary Innovation Index (Hollanders, 2021). c) Analysis models. In accordance with the original formulation of Porter and Van der Linde, and considering the contribution in the evolution of PH provided by several empirical studies, our investigation wants to test the significance of the relationship between Environmental regulation (X) and corporate financial performance (Y), taking into account the potential enabling function of innovation in the development of the aforementioned relationship. For this reason, the hypotheses H1 and H2 are tested by including innovation (expressed through the EIS indicator) as the mediation variable (M) of the relationship between Environmental regulation and corporate financial performance, and also considering the influence of the variables "Country" and "Sector" as moderation variables. To achieve these objectives, we use a simple mediation model, which predicts that the process by which the variable X has an effect on Y is mediated by M7. 7 The model is developed by increasing the delay of the independent variable (EPS) on the dependent variable (financial performance), in order to longitudinally evaluate the possible variation of the mediation effects exerted by EPS on FP_OV8. The simple mediation model, used to test the various research hypotheses, is applied in three distinct versions which differ for the dependent variable (Y): • • 1st version (indicated as model 1.1), where Y = overall financial performance (FP_OV); • • 2nd version (indicated as model 1.2), where Y = economic performance (EP); • • 3rd version (indicated as model 1.3), where Y = financial performance (FP). Furthermore, considering that three different timeframes are considered for the explanatory variable EPS, each version of the model is divided into three sub-versions indicated with: • • “.a” = T-4; • • “.b” = T-5; • • “.c” = T-69. The processing results are presented in the following order: a) models 1.1.a, 1.1.b and 1.1.c, which consider the dependent variable Overall performance (FP_OV) with the three different lags of the explanatory variable EPS; b) models 1.2.a, 1.2.b and 1.3.c, which consider the dependent variable economic performance (EP) with the three different lags of the explanatory variable EPS; c) models 1.3.a, 1.3.b and 1.3.c, which consider the dependent variable financial performance (FP) with the three different lags of the explanatory variable EPS. After verifying the significance of the relationship between EPS and FP_OV, mediated by EIS, the thesis uses a second analysis model (defined as mediation and moderation model) which introduces "Country" and "Sector" as moderation variables (W). Like what was done in the simple mediation model, this second model of mediation and moderation analysis considers the dynamic dimensions of the PH with the same time delays as EPS with respect to FP_OV10. For this reason, the mediation and moderation model is applied in two distinct versions which differ in the alternative use of "Country" and "Sector" as moderation variable (W), thus giving rise to two sub-models: • • 1st version (indicated as model 2.1.), where W = “Country” • • 2nd version (indicated as modello 3.1), wher W = “Sector” Also in this case, each version of the mediation and moderation model takes into account the different delay of the EPS variable with respect to Y= FP_OV, thus generating the following three further sub-models: • • “.a” = T-4; • • “.b” = T-5; • • “.c” = T-611. Consequently, the analysis is divided into six sub-models of mediation and moderation listed below: a) Models 2.1.a, 2.1.b 2.1.c, where: W = “Country”; Y= Overall financial performance (FP_OV), with the three distinct timeframes of EPS; b) Models 3.1.a, 3.1.b and 3.1.c, where: W= “Sector”; Y= Overall financial performance FP_OV), with the three distinct timeframes of EPS. All models were estimated using a macro called “PROCESS”(Hayes, 2012, 2013),, which is based on 10,000 bootstrap samples at 95% partial correction intervals (Efron, B., & Tibshirani, 1985)12. 5. Results In the three simple mediation models, the obtained values of R2 and of the F-test are significant. In the thesis, therefore, the results obtained from the elaboration are commented in detail, then the results are presented according to the order described in the Methodology section. a) Results of the processing of models 1.1.a, 1.1.b and 1.1.c The simple mediation model applied to 1.1.a, 1.1.b. 1.1.c, shows a negligible direct negative effect (i.e., humble in terms of coefficient) of EPS on the overall financial performance (FP_OV) in our sample of companies. This negative effect is mitigated by innovation (EIS). The negative direct effect and the positive mediating role increase moderately as the increasing of the delay between EPS and FP_OV (from model 1.1.a to model 1.1.c). b) Results of the processing of models 1.2.a, 1.2.b e 1.2.c The simple mediation models 1.2.a, 1.2.b. 1.2.c, considers the economic performance score (EP) as the dependent variable. As already observed for the overall performance (FP_OV), this model shows a negative and humble direct effect of EPS on EP. Although the regression coefficient takes on very low values, it is a little more accentuated than that observed in models 1.1.a, 1.1.b and 1.1.c referred to the impact of EPS on FP_OV. Again, the negative effect of the explanatory variable on the dependent variable is mitigated by the positive influence of the mediation variable EIS. Furthermore, in line with the results of the previous model, the positive impact of innovation on EP grows slightly as the increasing of the temporary timeframe EPS and EP increases (from model 1.2.a to model 1.2.c). c) Results of the processing of models 1.3.a, 1.3.b e 1.3.c In the simple mediation models 1.3.a, 1.3.b. and 1.3.c, the dependent variable is represented by the financial performance score (FP). Like the previous ones, there is a negative and very weak direct effect of EPS on financial performance (FP). Unlike what was observed in the previous simple mediation models (relative to the impact of the explanatory variable on FP_OV and EP respectively), for the first time the total effect of EPS on the dependent variable FP, albeit negative, decreases as the lag between EPS and FP13. 13 d) Results of the processing of models 2.1.a, 2.1.b e 2.1.c e 3.1.a, 3.1.b,3.1.c. Referring to the elaborations conducted with the six mediation and moderation models, the two moderation variables were not statistically significant for 95% and 90% confidence intervals. Therefore, the obtained results do not allow us to state in statistically indicative terms, the moderating role played by the variables “Country” and “Sector” in the relationship between Environmental regulation and firms performance mediated by innovation14. 6. Contributions to existing literature The empirical investigation conducted in the thesis offers various innovative ideas compared to the previous literature, starting from the methodological aspect. In fact, it was possible to verify the entire relational chain between Environmental regulation, innovation and corporate financial performance through the development of a simple mediation model, which is characterized by the identification of innovation as a mediation variable, due to the compatibility between the functions recognized to the innovative activity in PH and the characteristics of the mediation variable (M) which must: a) be caused by X, or at least be logically dependent on X; b) being able to logically cause or modify Y even independently of X. Another methodology innovation is the use of the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution Analysis (TOPSIS), which represents one of the most effective operational research techniques in the synthesis of the corporate financial performance (Ricca et al., 2022),, the dependent variable of our investigation. As mentioned, the application of TOPSIS to a set of 9 indicators has allowed us to calculate three different performance scores (economic, financial and overall), with a useful breakdown in terms of results referring to each individual dimensions. The choice to measure overall, economic and financial performance, brings the focus of Porter's hypothesis back to the original dimension of a micro nature, against the monopoly of macro studies in the reference scientific literature. Moreover, a further innovation compared to previous studies on PH, is the mix of simple mediation, mediation and moderation models and the TOPSIS technique. We would underline the use of open data multidimensional composite indicators for the investigation on the links between Environmental regulation, innovation and performance, The novelty can also be found in the way of using of these indicators: in fact, the Environmental Policy Stringency Index (EPS), expressive of Environmental regulation, has reduced the problems of endogeneity underlined in the literature; moreover, the application of the European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS) as a mediation variable, is a pioneering element in the studies on the PH Finally, it should be noted that the selection criteria of the sample of companies used in the investigation, made it possible to overcome some theoretical limits by considering the following elements: a) characteristics of the firms, our sample is made up of listed companies, mature organizations , responding to a unique system of rules; b) geographical characteristics and distribution of wealth; the sample of 15 companies is expressive of European diversity and can be clustered both in terms of territory and wealth; c) economic sector of the companies of the sample, a choice that takes into account the different speed of innovation’s diffusion and, consequently, the different increasing in performance. 7. Conclusions The investigation conducted in the thesis brought out two main relevant results in the field of studies on the relationship between Environmental regulation, innovation and corporate financial performance The first result, highlights how the Environmental regulation has a statistically significant but very weak and negative effect on the performance of firms (i.e., on the performance observed in a comprehensive perspective), which is mildly accentuated in the medium term The second empirical evidence suggests that Environmental regulation has a negative impact, albeit weakly, on economic performance (due to the compliance costs generated by it) but not on financial performance. In fact, companies seem to compensate almost entirely compliance costs thanks to the benefits inducted by the innovation. In fact, despite the negative impact of regulation in terms of monetary outflows, companies are able to maintain the balance of the financial structure thanks to effective choices of correlation between sources and uses, which make the Environmental regulation "neutral" in medium term. These last indications regarding the financial structure, can be deduced from the results of the tests of hypotheses H.1.b and H.2.b. 8. Limitations and directions for future research In the face of the contributions to existing literature, there are some limits arising from our research First of all, the relationship between Environmental regulation, innovation and business competitiveness can be explored through the development of mediation and moderation models. These evolutions would be useful for: a) deepening the lack of significance of "Country" and "Sector" as moderating variables aimed at assessing the different speed (between countries and between sectors) of diffusion of innovation and its related impacts on performance corporate; b) include mediation or moderation variables that capture, together with the economic results, the environmental and 16 social effects of the corporate activity (e.g. Global Reporting Initiative) and the related Environment, Social, Governance (ESG) scores. With regard to the possible directions of future research, all new research on the Porter Hypothesis should enhance the dynamic dimensions of the PH in order to test different delay structures aimed to verifying the variation of the effects induced by the Environmental regulation and by the competitiveness innovation. A further methodological suggestion for researchers could be to build expressive indicators of the severity of each type of Environmental regulation, comparable in a cross-country perspective. This evolution in the design of variables, would facilitate policy makers and researchers in the regulatory planning and regulatory evaluation phases. In addition, the new set of indicators could capture the impact of self-regulation and voluntary regulation on innovation and competitiveness of firms. It would be desirable to deepen the issue of the multidimensionality of the innovative performance of the public sector. in fact, to date, the current indicator systems do not provide relevant information on the effectiveness of the regulatory framework on innovation and on the rate of innovation within the public sector15. It may be helpful exploring and measuring the coordination capacity between policy makers and regulatory bodies, which should include the promotion and implementation of innovation among their main objectives. A viable idea may be to include the rate and dimensions of innovation in the impact assessments of the Regulation (both ex ante and ex post) in future analyses, setting timeframes dedicated to the review of the Regulation. Finally, future research could consider the role and evolution of new ultra-hybrid business models, which are on the border between profit-oriented companies with a strong orientation towards C.S.R and non-profit organizations (Loprevite, 2020). Indeed, the simultaneous researching of value for shareholders and for society seems to be inspired by the logic of PH. The adherence between the corporate governance values of the new "Fourth Sector" of the economy and Porter's formulations, could also be reflected in terms of new empirical results in the research of the relationships between Environmental regulation, innovation and competitiveness.
Università per Stranieri “Dante Alighieri” di Reggio Calabria Dottorato di ricerca in “Global Studies for an Inclusive and Integrated Society Global Culture, Digital Society, Diversity Inclusion and Social Innovation for Development” (Summary) LE RELAZIONI TRA REGOLAMENTAZIONE AMBIENTALE, INNOVAZIONE E PERFORMANCE ECONOMICO-FINANZIARIA D’IMPRESA Profili d’inquadramento teorico ed evidenze empiriche dall’Europa S.S.D. di riferimento: SECS-P/07 Coordinatore: prof. Salvatore Loprevite Firma: Tutor: prof. Salvatore Loprevite Firma: Dottorando: dott. Giuseppe Vacalebre Ciclo di dottorato: XXXIV Firma: Anno Accademico 2021/2022 INDICE 1. Introduzione 1 2. Obiettivi e domande di ricerca 3 3. Limitazioni della letteratura esistente 4 4. Metodologia 9 5. Risultati 13 6. Contributi alla letteratura esistente 15 7. Conclusioni 16 8. Limiti e traiettorie di ricerca futura 17 9. Principale bibliografia di riferimento 19 1. Introduzione Il lavoro di tesi ha ad oggetto di studio la tematica relativa al legame tra Regolamentazione ambientale e performance economico-finanziaria delle imprese, considerando nello studio di tale relazione il ruolo di mediazione giocato dall’innovazione quale variabile influenzata dalla regolamentazione e impattante sulle performance aziendali. Nel vasto campo della ricerca che riguarda il rapporto tra Regolamentazione, innovazione e performance aziendale, il lavoro si concentra quindi sull’attività di regolamentazione ambientale dei policy makers. Com’è noto, dopo un lungo periodo di tempo in cui si è ritenuto che la Regolamentazione ambientale esplicasse un effetto negativo sulle imprese, a causa della generazione di costi di conformità che ne riducevano la performance economica, due autori hanno fornito un nuovo riferimento teorico di base su questo rapporto (Porter & van der Linde, 1995). La loro intuizione, ormai nota come “Ipotesi di Porter” (PH), ha, di fatto, fornito una visione concettuale volta a ribaltare la precedente opinione di studiosi e manager sull’impatto negativo espletato dalla Regolamentazione ambientale sulle imprese, per assumere la prospettiva contraria, ovvero che una regolamentazione ben progettata, pur aumentando i costi di conformità, è al tempo stesso in grado di stimolare l’innovazione delle imprese al punto da compensare i predetti costi di conformità e migliorare la performance aziendale (ottica micro) e, di conseguenza, anche la competitività a livello di sistema Paese (ottica macro). L'assunto di Porter ha riscosso grande interesse, alimentando un nutrito dibattito scientifico. Le posizioni degli studiosi, in particolare, si sono divise tra coloro che l’hanno accolta in senso critico, considerandola incompatibile con l’ipotesi di imprese che massimizzano il profitto (Palmer, K., 1995), e quelli che invece l’hanno considerato un fattore di arricchimento del quadro teorico originale. Nel tentativo di classificare meglio gli approcci teorici ed empirici, la letteratura ha disaggregato la PH in tre versioni, debole, forte e stringente (Jaffe & Palmer, 1997): • ipotesi debole (PH debole). La Regolamentazione ambientale, se ben progettata, aumenterà il tasso d’innovazione nelle imprese, producendo benefici di natura ambientale ed economica; • ipotesi forte (PH forte). L’innovazione indotta dalla Regolamentazione condurrà ad una maggiore produttività, redditività e competitività dell’azienda, • versione stringente (PH stringente). Entra in gioco l’efficacia dello strumento regolamentare. Nello specifico, appare più probabile che strumenti di politica ambientale flessibili, progettati per mirare al risultato piuttosto che alla rimodulazione del processo produttivo, aumentino l’innovazione e migliorino le prestazioni aziendali. La tesi è articolata in cinque capitoli, tappe di un percorso logico e consequenziale utile a cogliere le diverse e correlate implicazioni della tematica indagata. Il primo capitolo fornisce un quadro teorico di riferimento su Regolamentazione e innovazione. Tale premessa è da considerarsi essenziale per poter affrontare con rigore di metodo, le argomentazioni sviluppate nelle parti successive della tesi, relative alle relazioni tra Regolamentazione, innovazione e competitività; in ciò, tenendo conto della varietà regolamentare, delle peculiarità settoriali, dei possibili effetti ambivalenti, delle metodologie adottate e dei risultati raggiunti. Il secondo capitolo aiuta a comprendere il ruolo degli attori principali del sistema di innovazione, ovvero lo Stato e le Imprese. Lo Stato è l’attore cui è demandato il compito di predisporre gli interventi regolamentari, al punto da ritagliarsi un ruolo centrale in termini di indirizzo e di creazione di valore nei sistemi di innovazione. La descrizione dell’impresa e dell’imprenditore, dall’altro lato, evidenzia il loro DNA innovatore, in grado di interpretare in chiave strategica le diverse dimensioni di sostenibilità associate all’innovazione attraverso i concetti tipici dell’economia aziendale, quali il ciclo di vita, il vantaggio competitivo e l’integrazione delle catene del valore. Il terzo capitolo offre una panoramica completa del rapporto tra Regolamentazione e innovazione, mettendo in evidenza una relazione bidirezionale tra le stesse. In questa sezione della tesi si evidenzia, altresì, come il successo della relazione di cui si discute dipenda dalle peculiarità delle diverse categorie di regolamentazione presentate. Questi tre capitoli compongono la parte prima del lavoro. I successivi capitoli quattro e cinque, che costituiscono la seconda parte del lavoro, sono dedicati allo sviluppo delle ipotesi di ricerca e all’analisi empirica volta a testarle. Il quarto capitolo, in particolare, propone una lettura coordinata di strumenti regolamentari, approcci scientifici ed evoluzione del ruolo degli attori del sistema della Regolamentazione e dell’innovazione, con particolare riferimento alla Regolamentazione ambientale. Dopo aver descritto il portfolio di azioni regolamentari a disposizione dei policy makers, e gli impatti della Regolamentazione ambientale sull’innovazione, sia in termini di effetti che in termini di ripensamento della relazione Stato-Imprese, ampio spazio viene dedicato all’Ipotesi di Porter (PH), considerata come il primo grande contributo economico-aziendale volto a ribaltare il pensiero dominante del “paradiso dell’inquinamento”. Le indicazioni prescrittive di Porter e van der Linde, infatti, hanno costituito la base per lo sviluppo di successivi contributi teorici ed empirici volti ad arricchire il precetto originale, che vengono esaminati nella tesi per mezzo di una literature review ordinata per oggetto di analisi, limiti e possibili spazi di ricerca futura. Il quinto capitolo è dedicato allo sviluppo dell’indagine empirica, condotta su un campione di società europee quotate allo scopo di approfondire la significatività della relazione tra Regolamentazione ambientale, innovazione e performance economico-finanziaria nelle organizzazioni considerate. Il capitolo, secondo la struttura tipica delle indagini empiriche, descrive il disegno della ricerca (campione e periodo di riferimento, variabili e modelli di analisi), presenta i risultati delle elaborazioni e si chiude con la discussione degli stessi. 2. Obiettivi e domande di ricerca La review dei contributi empirici sulla PH passati in rassegna nella tesi fa emergere la presenza di modelli di analisi differenti utilizzati dai ricercatori e l’ottenimento di risultati controversi, sulla base dei quali si è ritenuto ragionevole asserire che la contraddittorietà degli stessi sia connessa all’impianto metodologico utilizzato e che essa possa essere, di fatto, espressiva dell’effettiva esistenza di una relazione molto debole tra Regolamentazione ambientale e performance, tenuto conto del ruolo dell’innovazione. Abbiamo inoltre ritenuto significativo porre l’accento sulle dimensioni dinamiche della PH, in base alle quali, gli impatti che percorrono la catena di relazioni alla base della PH aumenterebbero al crescere del ritardo temporale considerato. In ragione di tali premesse, la tesipunta a fornire un contributo alla letteratura riferita all’ipotesi di Porter (PH). Per realizzare tale obiettivo, abbiamo condotto un’analisi empirica riferita agli anni 2014-2020 su un campione di società europee quotate in borsa, con sede in nove Paesi europei e rappresentativi di nove diversi settori economici, al fine di testare le seguenti ipotesi di ricerca: • H.1. Esiste una relazione statisticamente significativa, ma debole, tra il rigore della Regolamentazione ambientale e la performance economico-finanziaria dell’impresa (ipotesi forte di Porter). Tale relazione dovrebbe essere favorita dall’innovazione generata dalla Regolamentazione ambientale (ipotesi debole di Porter); • H.2. L’impatto della Regolamentazione ambientale sulla performance economico-finanziaria dell’impresa si esplica maggiormente nel medio termine (la relazione in H.1. cresce al crescere dei ritardi temporali tra le due variabili). Le nostre ipotesi, quindi, tenendo in considerazione la letteratura precedente sul ruolo dell’innovazione, puntano a verificare in che misura quest’ultima “interferisca” sulla relazione tra Regolamentazione e performance. A tale fine, le ipotesi H.1 e H.2. vengono esaminate includendo l’innovazione, attraverso l’apposito indicatore composito (EIS) elaborato dall’UE (Hollanders, 2021), come variabile di mediazione della relazione tra Regolamentazione ambientale e performance economico-finanziaria. Si ha pertanto una verifica congiunta delle due ipotesi con un unico modello, ed è questa la prima innovazione metodologica che apportiamo alla letteratura precedente. Considerato che la Regolamentazione ambientale impatta direttamente in termini di costi addizionali a carico dell’impresa, e considerato altresì che il nostro modello di sintesi della performance basato su TOPSIS applicata a un set composito di indicatori ci permette di disporre di due distinti score di performance (economico e finanziario), le ipotesi H.1. e H.2 sono testate, oltre che con riferimento alla performance economico-finanziaria complessiva (overall), anche con riferimento alle specifiche dimensioni economica e finanziaria della stessa, ipotizzando che l’impatto della Regolamentazione ambientale sia più accentuato per la performance economica rispetto alla performance finanziaria. Le due predette ipotesi principali H.1. e H.2, quindi, si scompongono un due ulteriori sub ipotesi: • H.1.a) e H.2.a) riferite allo score di performance economica; • H.1.b) e H.2.b) riferite allo score di performance finanziaria. Come abbiamo già detto, i modelli vengono anche testati considerando “Country” e “Sector” come variabili di moderazione. 3. Limitazioni della letteratura esistente Le indicazioni prescrittive di Porter e van der Linde, hanno costituito la base per lo sviluppo di successivi contributi teorici ed empirici, che vengono esaminati attraverso la literature review presentata nel capitolo IV della tesi. Tale analisi sui presupposti teorici e sugli effetti della PH ci ha consentito di fare luce sui progressi della letteratura e, al contempo, di evidenziare alcuni limiti tutt’ora esistenti, i quali possono rappresentare un punto di partenza per futuri studi teorici ed empirici sul tema. Nella tesi, i suddetti limiti sono distinti in due categorie principali: a) limiti a carattere teorico; b) limiti di natura empirica. È bene precisare che tale distinzione non rappresenta un invito a trattare le macroaree in maniera distinta e separata né suggerisce che le stesse non siano strettamente correlate. Lo scopo della suddivisione è quello di destrutturare concettualmente la PH, al fine individuare tutti gli elementi chiave della stessa per poterli osservare singolarmente, stressarli e riconfigurali in un’ottica sistemica funzionale a fornire nuovo valore alla letteratura sull’Ipotesi di Porter. a) Limiti di carattere teorico Tra i limiti di carattere teorico, nella tesi vengono individuate le seguenti quattro categorie principali: 1. Caratteristiche dell’azienda: le indagini condotte sulla PH forniscono risultati poco significativi o addirittura contrastanti a causa di un’impostazione teorica che non tiene in considerazione le caratteristiche dell’azienda o del settore, che influenzano le dimensioni dell’innovazione e della competitività. Tale impostazione concettuale è considerata fonte di una serie di problemi metodologici ancora non del tutto superati (Lankoski, 2010); 2. Condizioni di governance, programmi di formazione e strumenti di reporting orientati alla sostenibilità: la conformità alla Regolamentazione ambientale non deve essere competenza esclusiva di un responsabile tematico, poiché essa risulta più efficace se viene concertata tra manager, responsabili finanziari e responsabili di processo. Una possibile linea di sviluppo delle prossime ricerche potrebbe includere, tra le variabili di mediazione o moderazione, gli effetti ambientali e sociali dell’attività aziendale (ad esempio, Global Reporting Initiative), o gli score espressivi delle dimensioni Environment, Social, Governance (ESG). Inoltre, al fine di evitare che le opportunità redditizie siano ad uso esclusivo delle grandi imprese, sarebbe auspicabile progettare programmi formativi orientati allo sviluppo di innovazione e competitività potenzialmente derivabile dalla Regolamentazione ambientale; 3. Il ruolo delle imprese social-oriented e dei modelli ultra-ibridi d’impresa: La letteratura più recente si è soffermata sulle imprese c.d. ibride, caratterizzate dalla ricerca congiunta del profitto e dei benefici sociali, Tale bilanciamento di obiettivi all’interno dell’impresa si riflette sui valori guida della governance impegnata a raggiungere risultati in grado di coniugare simultaneamente il valore per gli azionisti con quello creato per l’ambiente, al punto da spingere alcuni autori a definire questa tipologia d’impresa come antesignana del quarto settore dell’economia, in considerazione dell’avvenuta istituzionalizzazione della vocazione sociale (Loprevite, 2020). Le nuove ricerche potrebbero approfondire lo studio delle relazioni tra Regolamentazione ambientale, innovazione e performance con riferimento a questi dei nuovi modelli ibridi d’impresa , per verificare se l’istituzionalizzazione dell’orientamento sociale influisca significativamente sul configurarsi della stessa relazione. 4. Livelli di osservazione della PH: l’aumento e la varietà di dataset (anche di natura open-data), a disposizione delle organizzazioni di ricerca, potrebbe favorire una diversificazione delle analisi della PH sulla base del campo di osservazione, distinguendo le stesse analisi in: - di natura macroeconomica, in ossequio all’approccio della Concorrenza tra le nazioni; - di ottica microeconomica, considerato che tale ottica è la più sottovalutata dalla letteratura di riferimento, nonostante essa sia la più vicina alla formulazione originaria della PH e alle formulazioni dello stesso Porter in tema di di vantaggio competitivo, - multilivello, ovvero con una prospettiva in grado di mettere in relazione e misurare meccanismi e livelli di coordinamento tra i due approcci precedenti (micro e macro) e tra diversi livelli di governo. b) Limiti di natura empirica In riferimento ai limiti di natura empirica, la review della letteratura presentata nella tesi ha evidenziato una serie di limiti metodologici che abbiamo classificato nel modo seguente: 1. limitata attenzione alla struttura dinamica della PH. Una delle principali criticità della PH si identifica nell’incapacità di cogliere adeguatamente la struttura dei ritardi degli effetti della Regolamentazione sulle variabili dipendenti. Tale limite è da ricondurre in parte alle ragioni che ispiravano i sostenitori del “paradiso dell’inquinamento” ed in parte alla ridotta attenzione ai temi della sostenibilità. I nuovi studi empirici che terranno conto della struttura di ritardo saranno facilitati grazie al maggior numero di banche dati a disposizione, espressione di una attenzione istituzionale ai temi della sostenibilità e della consapevolezza sociale; 2. multidimensionalità della performance. In virtù delle assunzioni Porteriane sulla multidimensionalità del concetto di innovazione e di performance aziendale, già richiamate nella descrizione dei limiti di natura teorica, un limite di natura empirica è individuabile nel focus dei precedenti studi empirici sulla competitività espressa esclusivamente con variabili macro-economiche, legate a spese in R&S, Brevetti e Multi-Factor Productivity; La portata di questo limite è ancora più rilevante se si considera la mancata misurazione della multidimensionalità della performance innovativa nel settore pubblico. Tale lacuna che affligge la catena di relazioni tra le dimensioni della PH è probabilmente frutto di un mancato sviluppo di una “cultura dell'innovazione” all'interno degli organismi regolamentari, con conseguenti ripercussioni anche in termini di misurazione della performance innovativa degli stessi (e dell’intero settore pubblico). Nonostante gli sforzi di alcune istituzioni, non si registrano analisi quantitative, e i recenti sistemi di indicatori esistenti non riportano informazioni rilevanti sull’efficacia del quadro regolamentare sull’innovazione (Alemanno, 2015; Deighton-Smith, 2016) . Discorso analogo vale per la misurazione multidimensionale dell’innovazione all’interno del settore pubblico. In questo ambito, vi sono numerosi modelli qualitativi (Kattel et al., n.d.) frutto della prassi e premi all’innovazione, nonché framework teorici promossi da organizzazioni sovranazionali , ma non esiste ancora un quadro teorico al quale ispirarsi per la costruzione di un sistema di misurazione e valutazione (neanche quali-quantitativo) assimilabile a quelli adottati dal settore pubblico per la misurazione della performance. Appare inoltre poco esplorato il ruolo delle aziende nella relazione tra sistema regolamentare ed innovazione, sia riferito ad una mappatura dell’evoluzione dei processi aziendali sia in risposta alle azioni di compliance. Ciò vale anche per l’analisi delle modalità di interazione tra le autorità di regolamentazione e le aziende regolamentate. Alcuni di questi limiti sono stati già segnalati e vengono considerati teoricamente superabili dalle mission oriented innovation policies e dalle global challenges (Mazzucato, 2018); tuttavia, gli sforzi teorici non sono stati seguiti da studi empirici. Tutto ciò considerato, nella tesi si suggerisce come possibile linea futura delle ricerche la possibilità di esplorare e misurare la capacità di coordinamento tra policy makers e organismi di Regolamentazione, i quali dovrebbero inserire tra gli obiettivi principali la promozione e l’implementazione dell’innovazione. Un’idea percorribile può essere quella di includere nelle analisi il tasso e le dimensioni d'innovazione nelle valutazioni d'impatto della Regolamentazione (sia ex ante che ex post), fissando sulla base delle stesse gli intervalli temporali dedicati alla revisione della Regolamentazione. 3. Selezione delle variabili e diversificazione dei modelli di ricerca operativa. Nonostante gli sforzi degli organismi internazionali e dei policy makers, le variabili sintetiche espressive della Regolamentazione ambientale sono poche e una parte della letteratura utilizza ancora proxies basate sui costi di conformità ambientale. Tale scelta è distante dalle assunzioni originarie della PH, e non risulta affidabile in termini di validità dei risultati poiché i costi di adeguamento possono dipendere anche da altri fattori (es. l’obsolescenza degli impianti). Malgrado i progressi rinvenibili principalmente nella formulazione di indicatori compositi già utilizzati in letteratura, ancora non appare possibile confrontare in termini di efficacia le singole tipologie di Regolamentazione ambientale e le possibili combinazioni delle stesse. Lo stesso discorso vale per le variabili espressive dell’innovazione, non esauribili in spese in R&S, brevetti ambientali e brevetti di successo, poiché, come evidenziato nella prima parte della tesi, l’innovazione non si riferisce esclusivamente alla dimensione tecnologica ma anche ad altre dimensioni. La sfida per studiosi e organizzazioni di ricerca è quella di trovare nuove variabili espressive di dimensioni complesse nonché di sperimentare nuove tecniche di ricerca operativa per testare la significatività della PH. 4. Metodologia Il nostro disegno di ricerca volto a testare la significatività della relazione tra Regolamentazione ambientale, innovazione e performance economico-finanziaria è descritto nell’ultimo capitolo della tesi con riferimento ai tre seguenti elementi: a) Il campione; b) Le variabili; c) I modelli di analisi. a) il campione La nostra analisi empirica è riferita agli anni 2014-2020 e si basa su un campione di 782 società europee quotate, estratto da Refinitiv® Eikon Datastream® (Https://Www.Refinitiv.Com/) Le imprese del campione operano in nove diversi settori economici (Https://Classification.Codes/Classifications/Industry/Icbn/; Https:/Www.Ftserussell.Com/) , ed hanno sede in nove Paesi europei . Esse, quindi, risultano clusterizzabili sia in termini di territorio (diversa posizione geografica) che di ricchezza (PIL e Pil pro-capite) . b) Le Variabili 1. La Variabile dipendente, Financial Performance Complessiva (Overall), (FP_Ov)è sintetizzata con TOPSIS (Bulgurcu, 2013; Hwang,C.L.; Yoon,K., 1981; Lin, C.,T., & Tsai, M., 2010; Roy & Patro, 2021), attraverso un set di nove indicatori grazie al quale abbiamo suddividiso ulteriormente la FP_OV in performance economica (EP) e performance finanziaria (FP); 2. La Variabile indipendente, ovvero l’Environmental Policy Stringency Index (EPS), è un indicatore composito del rigore delle politiche ambientali, utile a favorire analisi empiriche transnazionali e longitudinali. In ossequio all’approccio data-driven, l’indicatore include diverse aree di policy quali: politiche relative al clima e agli inquinanti atmosferici, al settore dell'energia e ai trasporti. L'indicatore di policy aggrega il “rigore” in una serie di politiche ambientali selezionate per formare una misura composita del rigore delle Regolamentazione ambientale, idoneo per i confronti tra i Paesi. In tal modo, gli ideatori dell’indicatore hanno ottenuto la più ampia copertura dei paesi dell'OECD e, nel complesso, l’indicatore raggruppa le politiche nei settori di primaria importanza ambientale (Botta & Koźluk, 2014). 3. La variabile di mediazione, ovvero l’European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS), fornisce annualmente una valutazione comparativa delle prestazioni di ricerca e innovazione degli Stati membri dell'UE e dei relativi punti di forza e di debolezza dei loro sistemi di ricerca e innovazione. L'EIS distingue tra 4 tipi principali attività (condizioni quadro, investimenti, attività di innovazione e impatti) e 12 dimensioni dell'innovazione, catturando in totale 32 indicatori. Ciascun gruppo principale comprende un numero uguale di indicatori e ha un peso uguale nel Summary Innovation Index (Hollanders, 2021). c) I Modelli di analisi In accordo alla formulazione originale di Porter e Van der Linde, e considerando i principali studi empirici che hanno contribuito all’evoluzione della PH, l’indagine volta a verificare la significatività della relazione tra Regolamentazione ambientale (X) e performance economico-finanziaria (Y) finanziaria tiene conto della potenziale funzione abilitante dell’innovazione nello sviluppo della suddetta relazione. In ragione di ciò, le ipotesi H1 e H2 sono testate nella tesi includendo l’innovazione (espressa attraverso l’indicatore EIS) nelle vesti di variabile di mediazione (M) della relazione tra Regolamentazione ambientale e performance economico-finanziaria, e considerando altresì l’influenza delle variabili “Country” e “Sector” come variabili di moderazione. Per raggiungere tale obiettivo, viene utilizzato un modello di mediazione semplice, il quale prevede che il processo in base al quale la variabile X produca un effetto su Y viene mediato da M . Il modello viene sviluppato attraverso l’aumento del ritardo della variabile indipendente (EPS) sulla variabile dipendente (performance finanziaria), al fine di valutare longitudinalmente la possibile variazione degli effetti di mediazione esplicati da EPS su FP_OV . Il modello di mediazione semplice, per testare le varie ipotesi di ricerca, è applicato in tre distinte versioni che differiscono per la variabile dipendente (Y = Financial performance): • 1° versione (che indichiamo come modello 1.1), con Y = performance complessiva (Overall) (FP_Ov); • 2° versione (che indichiamo come modello 1.2), con Y = performance economica (EP); • 3° versione (che indichiamo come modello 1.3), con Y = performance finanziaria (FP). Considerato inoltre che per la variabile esplicativa EPS sono considerati tre differenti intervalli temporali, ciascuna versione del modello si articola in tre sub-versioni indicate con: • “.a” per T-4; • “.b” per T-5; • “.c” per T-6 . I risultati ottenuti dalle elaborazioni sono presentati nel seguente ordine: a) modelli 1.1.a, 1.1.b e 1.1.c, che considerano la variabile dipendente performance complessiva (Overall) (FP_Ov) con i tre differenti ritardi della variabile esplicativa EPS; b) modelli 1.2.a, 1.2.b e 1.3.c, che considerano la variabile dipendente performance economica (EP) con i tre differenti ritardi della variabile esplicativa EPS; c) modelli 1.3.a, 1.3.b e 1.3.c, che considerano la variabile dipendente performance finanziaria (FP) con i tre differenti ritardi della variabile esplicativa EPS. Dopo aver verificato la significatività della relazione tra EPS e FP_OV, mediate da EIS, nella tesi viene utilizzato un secondo modello di analisi (definito modello di mediazione e moderazione) attraverso l’introduzione di “Country” e “Sector” come variabili di moderazione (W). Al pari di quanto fatto nel Modello di mediazione semplice, questo secondo modello di analisi di mediazione e moderazione considera le dimensioni dinamiche della PH con gli stessi ritardi temporali di EPS rispetto a FP_OV . In ragione di ciò, il modello di mediazione e moderazione è applicato in due distinte versioni che differiscono per l’utilizzo alternativo di “Country” e “Sector” come variabile di moderazione (W), dando così luogo a due sub-modelli: • 1° versione (che indichiamo come modello 2.1.), con W = “Country” • 2° versione (che indichiamo come modello 3.1), con W = “Sector” Anche in questo caso, ogni versione del modello di mediazione e moderazione tiene conto del diverso ritardo della variabile EPS rispetto ad Y= FP_OV, generando così i seguenti tre ulteriori sub-modelli: • “.a” per T-4; • “.b” per T-5; • “.c” per T-6 . Di conseguenza, l’analisi si articola in sei sub-modelli di mediazione e moderazione elencati di seguito: a) modelli 2.1.a, 2.1.b e 2.1.c, dove: W= “Country”; Y= performance complessiva (Overall) (FP_Ov), con i tre distinti intervalli temporali di EPS; b) modelli 3.1.a, 3.1.b e 3.1.c, dove: W= “Sector”; Y= performance complessiva (Overall) (FP_Ov), con i tre distinti intervalli temporali di EPS; Tutti i modelli sono stati stimati utilizzando una macro denominata “PROCESS”(Hayes, 2012, 2013), la quale si basa su 10.000 campioni di bootstrap a intervalli di confidenza con correzione parziale del 95% (Efron, B., & Tibshirani, 1985) . 5. Risultati In tutti e tre i modelli di mediazione semplice, i valori ottenuti di R2 e del test F sono significativi. Nella tesi, quindi, vengono commentati in dettaglio i risultati ottenuti dall’elaborazione , si presentano quindi i risultati secondo l’ordine descritto nella sezione dedicata alla Metodologia. a) Risultati delle elaborazioni dei modelli 1.1.a, 1.1.b e 1.1.c Il modello di mediazione semplice applicato a 1.1.a, 1.1.b. 1.1.c, evidenzia un effetto diretto negativo poco rilevante (ovvero modesto in termini di coefficiente), di EPS sulla performance finanziaria overall (FP_OV) nel campione di imprese considerato. Tale effetto negativo viene mitigato dall’innovazione (EIS). L’effetto diretto negativo e il ruolo positivo di mediazione aumentano moderatamente al crescere del ritardo tra EPS e FP_OV (dal modello 1.1.a al modello 1.1.c). b) Risultati delle elaborazioni dei modelli 1.2.a, 1.2.b e 1.2.c I modelli di mediazione semplice 1.2.a, 1.2.b. 1.2.c, che come detto utilizzano lo score di performance economica (EP) come variabile dipendente, evidenziano un effetto diretto di EPS su EP, negativo e di portata modesta, al pari di come avviene per la performance complessiva (FP_Ov). Sebbene siamo sempre di fronte a un coefficiente di regressione molto basso, lo stesso risulta un po’ più accentuato rispetto a quello osservato nei modelli 1.1.a, 1.1.b e 1.1.c riferiti all’impatto di EPS su FP_OV. Anche in questo caso, l’effetto negativo della variabile esplicativa sulla variabile dipendente viene mitigato dall’influenza positiva della variabile di mediazione EIS. Inoltre, analogamente a quanto riscontrato con il modello precedente, l’impatto positivo dell’innovazione su EP cresce, se pur in misura lieve, all’ampliamento dell’intervallo temporale che intercorre tra EPS e EP (dal modello 1.2.a al modello 1.2.c). c) Risultati delle elaborazioni dei modelli 1.3.a, 1.3.b e 1.3.c I modelli di mediazione semplice 1.3.a, 1.3.b. e 1.3.c, nei quali la variabile dipendente è costituita dallo score di performance finanziaria (FP), evidenziano, al pari dei precedenti, un effetto diretto negativo e molto debole di EPS sulla performance finanziaria (FP). A differenza di quanto riscontrato nei precedenti modelli di mediazione semplice (relativi all’impatto della variabile esplicativa rispettivamente su FP_OV e EP), per la prima volta l’effetto totale di EPS sulla variabile dipendente FP, se pur negativo, diminuisce all’aumentare del ritardo tra EPS e FP . d) Risultati delle elaborazioni dei modelli 2.1.a, 2.1.b e 2.1.c e 3.1.a, 3.1.b,3.1.c. In riferimento elaborazioni condotte con i sei modelli di mediazione e moderazione, le due variabili di moderazione non sono risultate statisticamente significative per intervalli di confidenza del 95% e 90%. I risultati ottenuti, quindi, non consentono di affermare, in termini statisticamente indicativi, il ruolo di moderazione giocato dalle stesse due variabili nel contesto delle relazioni indagate tra Regolamentazione ambientale e performance aziendale, con il ruolo di mediazione assunto dall’innovazione . 6. Contributi alla letteratura esistente L’indagine empirica condotta nella tesi offre vari spunti innovativi rispetto alla letteratura precedente, a partire dall’aspetto metodologico. Infatti, è stato possibile verificare l’intera catena di relazione che lega Regolamentazione ambientale, innovazione e performance aziendale attraverso lo sviluppo di un modello di mediazione semplice, che si caratterizza per aver identificato l’innovazione come variabile di mediazione, in ragione della compatibilità tra le funzioni riconosciute all’attività innovative nella PH e le caratteristiche della variabile di mediazione (M) che deve: a) esser causata da X, o almeno essere logicamente dipendente da X; b) poter causare o modificare logicamente Y anche indipendentemente da X. Altro elemento metodologico innovativo deve considerarsi l’utilizzo della Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution Analysis (TOPSIS), che rappresenta una tra le tecniche di ricerca operativa più efficaci nella sintesi della performance economico-finanziaria aziendale (Ricca et al., 2022), variabile dipendente della nostra indagine. L’applicazione di TOPSIS ad un set di 9 indicatori ci ha consentito, come detto, di calcolare tre diversi score di performance (economico, finanziaria ed economico-finanziaria), con una disaggregazione che è risultata utile in termini di espressività dei risultati riferiti alle singole dimensioni. La scelta di misurare la performance in termini economici, finanziari e overall, ha il merito di riportare il focus dell’ipotesi di Porter alla dimensione originale di natura micro, a fronte dell’allontanamento da tale prospettiva che si è determinato con gli studi di carattere macro che hanno monopolizzato la letteratura scientifica di riferimento. Peraltro, anche l’utilizzo congiunto de modelli di mediazione semplice, di mediazione e moderazione e della tecnica TOPSIS è un’innovazione rispetto ai precedenti studi sulla PH. Si ritiene utile ricordare, inoltre, che l’indagine del legame tra Regolamentazione ambientale, innovazione e performance è stata realizzata attraverso l’uso di indicatori compositi multidimensionali di natura open data. L’elemento di novità non si esaurisce con la scelta dei suddetti indicatori ma si riferisce anche alle modalità di utilizzo: infatti, l’Environmental Policy Stringency Index (EPS), espressivo della regolamentazione ambientale, ha ridotto i problemi di endogeneità riscontrati in letteratura: inoltre, l’European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS), applicato come variabile di mediazione, è stato per la prima volta considerato come variabile espressiva dell’innovazione in uno studio sulla PH. Infine, si evidenzia che la selezione del campione d’imprese utilizzato nell’indagine ha contribuito a superare taluni limiti di natura teorica attraverso la considerazione di alcuni elementi quali: a) peculiarità aziendali, in virtù della selezione sole società quotate, quindi da organizzazioni mature, rispondenti a un sistema di regole univoco; b) caratteristiche geografiche e distribuzione della ricchezza, poiché il campione di imprese è espressivo delle diversità che connotano lo spazio europeo, sia in termini di caratteristiche geografiche che di distribuzione di ricchezza, data la ripartizione delle imprese del campione in nove Paesi dell’UE clusterizzabili sia in termini di territorio che di ricchezza; c) settore economico di appartenenza delle aziende del campione, scelta espressiva della diversa velocità di diffusione dell’innovazione e, di conseguenza, di incremento della performance. 7. Conclusioni L’indagine condotta nella tesi ha fatto emergere, tra gli altri, due principali risultati di rilievo nello studio delle relazioni tra Regolamentazione ambientale, innovazione e performance aziendale Il primo mette in evidenza come la Regolamentazione ambientale esplichi un effetto statisticamente significativo ma assai debole, e negativo, sulla performance economico-finanziaria dell’impresa (cioè sulla performance osservata in prospettiva comprehensive), che si accentua moderatamente nel medio termine La seconda evidenzia empirica ottenuta suggerisce che la Regolamentazione ambientale impatta negativamente, seppur in maniera debole, sulla performance economica (a ragione dei costi di conformità che essa genera) ma non sulla performance finanziaria. In sostanza, quindi, sul fronte della dinamica economica, le imprese sembrano compensare quasi integralmente con i vantaggi generati dall’innovazione i costi connessi agli adeguamenti regolamentari. Sul piano finanziario, invece, esse – nonostante l’impatto negativo che il sostenimento di costi di regolamentazione esplica in termini di uscite monetarie, quindi anche sul piano finanziario – mantengono gli equilibri di struttura finanziaria necessari, e ciò non può che essere ricollegato all’attuazione di opportune ed efficaci scelte di correlazione tra le fonti e gli impieghi, che rendono la Regolamentazione ambientale “neutra” nel medio periodo in termini di impatto sulla struttura finanziaria. Queste ultime indicazioni in ordine alla struttura finanziaria, in particolare, sono ricavabili dai risultati dei test delle ipotesi H.1.b e H.2.b. 8. Limiti e traiettorie di ricerca futura A fronte dei nuovi contributi apportati, vi sono sicuramente dei limiti che caratterizzano il lavoro svolto. Innanzi tutto, è possibile sviluppare ulteriormente i modelli di mediazione e moderazione per la ricerca di relazioni tra la Regolamentazione ambientale, l’innovazione e la competitività delle imprese. Tali sviluppi potrebbero: a) puntare ad approfondimenti sulla mancata significatività di “Country” e “Sector” come variabili di moderazione volte a valutare la diversa velocità (tra i Paesi e tra i settori) di diffusione dell’innovazione e le ripercussioni dello stesso sulla performance aziendale; b) considerare l’inclusione di variabili di mediazione o moderazione espressive volte a considerare, accanto ai risultati economici, gli effetti ambientali e sociali dell’attività aziendale (es Global Reporting Initiative) e i relativi score espressivi delle dimensioni Environment, Social, Governance (ESG. Sul piano più generale dei possibili sviluppi delle linee di ricerca, i nuovi contributi sull’Ipotesi di Porter, indipendentemente dall’ottica micro o macro e dal campione considerato, dovrebbero esaltare le dimensioni dinamiche della PH al fine di sperimentare molteplici strutture di ritardo volte a verificare la variazione degli effetti prodotti dalla Regolamentazione ambientale e dall’innovazione rispetto alla competitività. Un’ulteriore suggestione metodologica per gli studiosi potrebbe essere quella di cimentarsi nella costruzione di indicatori espressivi della severità di ogni singola tipologia di Regolamentazione ambientale, e confrontabili in prospettiva Cross Country. Tale auspicata evoluzione nel disegno delle variabili faciliterebbe i policy makers nella fase di progettazione regolamentare e i ricercatori nella fase di valutazione. In aggiunta, il nuovo set di indicatori potrebbe catturare l’eventuale incidenza di autoregolamentazione e regolamentazione volontaria sui livelli di innovazione e di competitività delle imprese. Sono altresì auspicabili progressi inerenti mirati alla misurazione della multidimensionalità della performance innovativa del settore pubblico. Ad oggi infatti, i sistemi di indicatori esistenti non riportano informazioni rilevanti sull’efficacia del quadro regolamentare sull’innovazione (Alemanno, 2015; Deighton-Smith, 2016) né sulla misurazione dell’innovazione all’interno del settore pubblico . Appare, inoltre, poco esplorato il ruolo delle aziende nella relazione tra sistema regolamentare ed innovazione, sia riferito ad una mappatura dell’evoluzione dei processi aziendali sia in risposta alle azioni di compliance. Ciò vale anche per l’analisi delle modalità di interazione tra le autorità di regolamentazione e le aziende regolamentate. Sarebbe quindi auspicabile, esplorare e misurare la capacità di coordinamento tra policy maker, organismi tecnici di Regolamentazione e stakeholder attraverso valutazioni d’impatto della Regolamentazione (sia ex ante che ex post) sull’innovazione e sulla revisione della Regolamentazione, da effettuare ad intervalli temporali regolari. Infine, le future ricerche potrebbero considerare il ruolo e le evoluzioni dei nuovi modelli ultra-ibridi d’impresa, che si pongono al confine tra le imprese profit con forte orientamento alle pratiche di C.S.R e le imprese non profit (Loprevite, 2020). Infatti, il bilanciamento simultaneo nella creazione di valore per gli azionisti e società sembra ispirato dalla logica alla base della PH. L’aderenza tra i valori della governance aziendale di questo nuovo c.d. “Quarto Settore” dell’economia e le formulazioni Porteriane potrebbe riflettersi anche in termini di nuovi risultati empirici nella ricerca delle relazioni tra Regolamentazione ambientale, innovazione e competitività.
LE RELAZIONI TRA REGOLAMENTAZIONE AMBIENTALE, INNOVAZIONE E PERFORMANCE ECONOMICO-FINANZIARIA D’IMPRESA. Profili d’inquadramento teorico ed evidenze empiriche dall’Europa
Vacalebre, Giuseppe
2023
Abstract
1. Introduction The thesis aims to investigate the issue relating to the link between Environmental regulation and the corporate financial performance, taking into account the mediation role played by innovation as a variable influenced by regulation and, in turn, impacting on performance of companies. In the field of research concerning the relationship between regulation, innovation and corporate performance, the work therefore focuses on the Environmental regulation activity of policy makers. After a long period of time in which Environmental regulation was considered to exert a negative effect on businesses, due to the generation of compliance costs that negatively impact economic performance, two authors have provided a new theoretical baseline on this relationship (Porter & van der Linde, 1995). Their intuition, already known as "Porter's Hypothesis" (PH), provided a conceptual vision aimed to overturning the previous opinion of researchers and managers on the negative impact carried out by Environmental regulation on companies, in order to assume the opposite perspective, according to which, a well-designed regulation, even if it increases compliance costs, is at the same time able to stimulate business innovation, useful for offsetting compliance costs and improving business performance (micro perspective) and, consequently, also competitiveness at the country level (macro perspective). Porter's assumption has attracted great interest, fueling a large scientific debate. in this regard, the positions of the researchers were divided between those who accepted it in a critical sense, considering it incompatible with the hypothesis of companies that maximize profit (Palmer, K., 1995), and those who instead considered them an added value to the original theoretical framework. In an attempt to better classify theoretical and empirical approaches, the literature has disaggregated PH into three versions, weak, strong, and narrow (Jaffe & Palmer, 1997): • • Weak hypothesis (Weak PH). Environmental regulation, if well designed, will increase the rate of innovation in companies, enhancing also environmental benefits; • • Strong hypothesis (strong PH). The innovation induced by the Regulation will lead to greater productivity, profitability and competitiveness of the companies; • • Narrow version (Narrow PH). Flexible environmental policy tools, focused on the result rather than on the production process, increase innovation and improve business performance. 2 The thesis is structured in five chapters, stages of a logical and consequential path, which is useful for understanding the implications of the investigated topic. The first one, is essential to address with a rigorous methodology, the arguments developed in the subsequent parts of the thesis, relating to the relationships between Regulation, innovation and competitiveness; in this chapter, we take into account the regulatory variety, the sectoral peculiarities, the possible ambivalent effects, the methodologies adopted and the results achieved. The second chapter describes the role of the main players in the innovation system, i.e., the state and companies. The State is the actor responsible for regulation, therefore it assumes a central role in terms of guidance and value creation in innovation systems. On the other hand, the description of the companies and the entrepreneur highlights their innovative DNA, capable of strategically interpreting the various dimensions of sustainability associated with innovation through the key concepts of business economics, such as the life cycle, competitive advantage and the value chains. The third chapter offers a complete overview of the relationship between regulation and innovation, highlighting a two-way relationship between them. This section of the thesis also highlights how the success of this relation depends on the distinctive feature of the various regulatory categories. These three chapters make up the first part of the work. The following chapters four and five, which forms the second part of the thesis, refer to the development of the research hypotheses and to the empirical analysis carried out. The fourth chapter proposes a coordinated reading of regulatory tools, scientific approaches and the evolution of the role of the players in the Regulatory and innovation system, with particular reference to Environmental regulation. After describing the policy makers portfolio of regulatory actions, and the impacts of Environmental regulation on innovation, both in terms of effects and in terms of rethinking the relationship between policy makers and companies, we will deepen Porter's hypothesis (PH), which is considered the first major contribution of business economics in contrast with the idea of "pollution paradise". In fact, the prescriptive indications of Porter and van der Linde formed the basis for the development of subsequent theoretical and empirical contributions aimed at enriching the original precept. The same are examined in the thesis by means of a literature review sorted by object of analysis, limits and possible directions of future research. The fifth chapter is dedicated to the empirical survey conducted on a sample of listed European companies in order to investigate the significance of the relationship 3 between Environmental regulation, innovation and corporate financial performance in the companies in the sample. The chapter, according to the typical structure of empirical investigations, describes the research design (sample, observation period, variables and analysis models), presents the results of the elaborations and closes with a discussion of the same. 2. Objectives and research questions The review of the empirical contributions on PH brings out the presence of different analysis models used by researchers and also the contradictory nature of the results achieved. for this reason, it was considered reasonable to assert that this contradiction is connected to the methodological systems used and that it can also be expressive of the effective existence of a very weak relationship between Environmental regulation and performance, taking into account the role of innovation. We also considered that the dynamic dimensions of PH were important, since the impacts along the chain of relationships underlying PH would increase with the time lag considered. In accordance with these premises, the thesis aims to provide a contribution to the literature related to the hypothesis of Porter (PH). To achieve this goal, we conducted an empirical analysis referring to the years 2014-2020 on a sample of listed European companies based in nine European countries and representative of nine different economic sectors, in order to test the following research hypotheses: • • H.1. There is a statistically significant, but weak, relationship between the stringency of Environmental regulation and the financial performance of firms (strong Porter's hypothesis). This relationship should be fostered by the innovation induced by Environmental regulation (Porter's weak hypothesis); • • H.2. The impact of Environmental regulation on the financial performance of firms, intensifies in the medium term (the relationship in H.1. grows if the time lag between the two variables increases). Therefore, our research hypotheses, taking into consideration the previous literature on the role of innovation, aim to verify to what extent the latter "interferes" on the relationship between Regulation and performance. For this reason, hypotheses H.1 and H.2. are examined by including innovation, through the specific composite indicator (EIS) developed by the EU (Hollanders, 2021), as a mediating variable of the relationship between Environmental regulation and corporate financial performance. In this way, we are able to jointly verify the two research hypotheses 4 with a single model, and this is the first methodological innovation we bring to the previous literature. Considering the direct impact of Environmental regulation in terms of additional costs for the firms, and also considering that our performance synthesis model based on TOPSIS applied to a composite set of indicators allows us to have two distinct performance scores (economic and financial), hypotheses H.1. and H.2 are tested, as well as with reference to the overall financial performance, also with reference to the specific economic and financial dimensions of the same, assuming that the impact of the Environmental regulations is more accentuated for the economic performance than for the financial performance. The two aforementioned main hypotheses H.1. and H.2, therefore, break down into two further sub-hypotheses: • • H.1.a) and H.2.a) referred to the economic performance score; • • H.1.b) and H.2.b) referred to the financial performance score. As we have already specified, the models are also tested considering "Country" and "Sector" as moderation variables. 3. Limitations of existing literature The contribution of Porter and van der Linde was the basis of the subsequent theoretical and empirical contributions, which are examined through the literature review presented in chapter IV of the thesis. This analysis of the theoretical assumptions and the effects of PH has allowed us to highlight progress and some still existing limitations, which can represent a starting point for future theoretical and empirical studies on the subject. In the thesis, the limits on PH are divided into two main categories: a) theoretical limits; b) empirical limits. It should be noted that this distinction is not an invitation to treat the macro-areas separately and does not suggest that they are not closely related. The purpose of the subdivision is to conceptually deconstruct the PH in order to identify all the key elements of the same in order to be able to observe them individually, stress them and reconfigure them in a functional systemic perspective to provide new value to the literature on the Porter Hypothesis. 5 a) Theoretical limits Four main categories of theoretical limits have been identified: 1. Characteristics of the firms: the investigation conducted on PH provide insignificant or even conflicting results due to a theoretical approach that does not consider the characteristics of the firm or the sector, which influence the dimensions of innovation and competitiveness. This conceptual approach is considered the source of a series of methodological problems, which have not yet been totally overcome (Lankoski, 2010); 2. Sustainability-oriented reporting tools, Governance conditions and training programs: compliance with Environmental regulations should not be the exclusive competence of a thematic manager, since it is more effective if it is agreed with other managers (e.g., financial managers and managers of process). A possible direction of future research could consider the environmental and social effects of corporate activity (for example, the Global Reporting Initiative), or the scores expressive of the Environment, Social, Governance (ESG) dimensions, as mediation or moderation variables. Furthermore, in order to avoid that profitable opportunities are seized only by large companies, it would be desirable to design training programs aimed at developing innovation and competitiveness potentially deriving from Environmental regulations; 3. The role of social-oriented and ultra-hybrid companies: Recent literature has focused on the so-called ultra-hybrid companies, which seek to achieve profit and social benefits at the same time. This balancing of objectives is reflected in the guiding values of corporate governance, which seeks to simultaneously achieve value for shareholders and value for the environment. this institutionalization of the social vocation has prompted some authors to define this type of enterprise as the forerunner of the fourth sector of the economy (Loprevite, 2020). Future research could deepen the study of the relationship between Environmental regulation, innovation and performance by including new hybrid business models, in order to verify whether the institutionalization of social orientation significantly affects the effects of the same relationship. 4. PH Observation Perspectives: the increase and variety of datasets (also open-data) available to research organizations, could favor a diversification of PH analyzes based on the field of observation, distinguishing them into: - macroeconomic, in accordance with the approach of competition between Nations; 6 - microeconomic, although this perspective is closest to the original formulation of PH and to Porter's formulations on competitive advantage, it is the least explored in the literature; - multilevel, a perspective capable of relating and measuring the mechanisms and levels of coordination between the two previous approaches (micro and macro), and between different levels of government. b) Empirical limits With reference to the limitations of an empirical nature, the review of the literature presented in the thesis has highlighted a series of methodological limitations that we have classified as follows: 1. Limited attention to the dynamic structure of PH. One of the main criticalities of PH is that of not adequately grasping the structure of the delays of the effects of the Regulation on the dependent variables. This limit is due in part to the reasons that inspired the supporters of the "pollution paradise" and in part to the reduced attention to sustainability issues. The new empirical studies that will take into account the structure of delay will be facilitated thanks to the greater number of databases available, which are an expression of institutional attention to the issues of sustainability and social awareness; 2. multidimensionality of the performance. Based on Porter's assumptions on the multidimensionality of the concept of innovation and corporate performance (already referred to above), an empirical limit can be identified in the focus of previous empirical studies on competitiveness expressed exclusively with macroeconomic variables, such as expenditure on R&D, Patents and Multi-Factor Productivity. This limit becomes more relevant if we consider the failure to measure the multidimensionality of innovative performance in the public sector. This gap that afflicts the chain of relationships between the dimensions of the PH is probably the result of a failure to develop an "innovation culture" within the regulatory bodies, with consequent repercussions also in terms of measuring their innovative performance. Despite the efforts of some institutions, no quantitative analyzes are available, and the recent existing indicator systems do not provide relevant information on the effectiveness of the regulatory framework on innovation (Alemanno, 2015; Deighton-Smith, 2016)1. The same goes for the multidimensional measurement of innovation within the public sector. In this area, there are numerous qualitative models (Kattel et al., n.d.) resulting from practice and innovation awards, as well as theoretical frameworks promoted by international organizations, but there is still no theoretical framework from which to draw inspiration to build up a system of measurement and evaluation similar to those adopted by the public sector for the measurement of performance. Moreover, the role of companies in the relationship between the regulatory system and innovation appears to be little explored, both in terms of feedback on compliance actions and in terms of interaction’s way between policy makers and companies. Some of these limits have been theoretically considered to be overcome by mission oriented innovation policies and global challenges (Mazzucato, 2018); however, empirical studies have not supported theoretical efforts. All this considered, the thesis suggests as a possible future line of research, the possibility of exploring and measuring the coordination capacity between policy makers and regulatory bodies, which should include the promotion and implementation of innovation among their main objectives. A viable idea may be to include the rate and dimensions of innovation in the impact assessments of the Regulation (both ex ante and ex post) in future analyses, setting timeframes dedicated to the review of the Regulation. 3. Selection of variables and diversification of operational research models. Despite the efforts of international organizations and policy makers, the synthetic variables expressing Environmental regulation are few and a part of the literature still uses proxies based on environmental compliance costs. these choices are not consistent with the original assumptions of the PH, and are not reliable in terms of validity of the results because the compliance costs may also depend on other factors (e.g., the obsolescence of the plants). Despite the progress regarding the formulation of composite indicators (already used in the literature), it still does not appear possible to compare the effectiveness of the single types of Environmental regulation and of the possible combinations of the same. The same goes for the expressive variables of innovation, which cannot be exhausted in R&D expenditure, environmental patents and successful patents, because innovation does not refer exclusively to the technological dimension but also to other dimensions (as already pointed out in the first part of the thesis). The challenge for researchers and Institutions is to find new variables expressing complexity and to experiment them in new operational research techniques to test the significance of PH. 4. Methododolgy Our research design aimed at testing the significance of the relationship between Environmental regulation, innovation and corporate financial performance, is described in the last chapter of the thesis with reference to the following three elements: a) The sample; b) The variables; c) Analysis models. a) The sample Our empirical analysis refers to the years 2014-2020 and is based on a sample of 782 listed European companies, extracted from Refinitiv® Eikon Datastream® (Https://Www.Refinitiv.Com/)2 The companies of the sample operating in nine different economic sectors3 and are based in nine European countries4. Therefore, they can be clustered both in terms of territory (different geographical position) and wealth (GDP and per capita GDP).5 b) The variables 1. The dependent variable Overall Financial Performance (FP_OV), in synthesized by TOPSIS6 (Bulgurcu, 2013; Hwang,C.L.; Yoon,K., 1981; Lin, C.,T., & Tsai, M., 2010; Roy & Patro, 2021), through a set of nine indicators thanks to which we have further divided the FP_OV into: economic performance (EP) and financial performance (FP); 2. The independent variable, i.e., the Environmental Policy Stringency Index (EPS), is a composite indicator of the stringency of environmental policies, useful for facilitating transnational and longitudinal empirical analyses. In accordance with the data-driven approach, the indicator includes various policy areas such as: climate and atmospheric pollutants, energy sector and transport. The policy indicator aggregates stringency across a selected set of environmental policies in order to create a composite measure of Environmental regulation stringency, suitable for cross-country comparisons. In this way, the creators of the indicator have obtained the widest coverage of OECD countries and, overall, the indicator considers tools and policies referred to sectors of primary environmental importance (Botta & Koźluk, 2014). 3. The mediation variable, the European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS), provides an annual comparative assessment of the research and innovation performance of EU Member States and the relative strengths and weaknesses of their research and innovation systems. The EIS distinguishes between 4 main activity types (framework conditions, investments, innovation activities and impacts) and 12 dimensions of innovation, capturing in total 32 indicators. Each area is composed by an equal number of indicators with identical weight in the Summary Innovation Index (Hollanders, 2021). c) Analysis models. In accordance with the original formulation of Porter and Van der Linde, and considering the contribution in the evolution of PH provided by several empirical studies, our investigation wants to test the significance of the relationship between Environmental regulation (X) and corporate financial performance (Y), taking into account the potential enabling function of innovation in the development of the aforementioned relationship. For this reason, the hypotheses H1 and H2 are tested by including innovation (expressed through the EIS indicator) as the mediation variable (M) of the relationship between Environmental regulation and corporate financial performance, and also considering the influence of the variables "Country" and "Sector" as moderation variables. To achieve these objectives, we use a simple mediation model, which predicts that the process by which the variable X has an effect on Y is mediated by M7. 7 The model is developed by increasing the delay of the independent variable (EPS) on the dependent variable (financial performance), in order to longitudinally evaluate the possible variation of the mediation effects exerted by EPS on FP_OV8. The simple mediation model, used to test the various research hypotheses, is applied in three distinct versions which differ for the dependent variable (Y): • • 1st version (indicated as model 1.1), where Y = overall financial performance (FP_OV); • • 2nd version (indicated as model 1.2), where Y = economic performance (EP); • • 3rd version (indicated as model 1.3), where Y = financial performance (FP). Furthermore, considering that three different timeframes are considered for the explanatory variable EPS, each version of the model is divided into three sub-versions indicated with: • • “.a” = T-4; • • “.b” = T-5; • • “.c” = T-69. The processing results are presented in the following order: a) models 1.1.a, 1.1.b and 1.1.c, which consider the dependent variable Overall performance (FP_OV) with the three different lags of the explanatory variable EPS; b) models 1.2.a, 1.2.b and 1.3.c, which consider the dependent variable economic performance (EP) with the three different lags of the explanatory variable EPS; c) models 1.3.a, 1.3.b and 1.3.c, which consider the dependent variable financial performance (FP) with the three different lags of the explanatory variable EPS. After verifying the significance of the relationship between EPS and FP_OV, mediated by EIS, the thesis uses a second analysis model (defined as mediation and moderation model) which introduces "Country" and "Sector" as moderation variables (W). Like what was done in the simple mediation model, this second model of mediation and moderation analysis considers the dynamic dimensions of the PH with the same time delays as EPS with respect to FP_OV10. For this reason, the mediation and moderation model is applied in two distinct versions which differ in the alternative use of "Country" and "Sector" as moderation variable (W), thus giving rise to two sub-models: • • 1st version (indicated as model 2.1.), where W = “Country” • • 2nd version (indicated as modello 3.1), wher W = “Sector” Also in this case, each version of the mediation and moderation model takes into account the different delay of the EPS variable with respect to Y= FP_OV, thus generating the following three further sub-models: • • “.a” = T-4; • • “.b” = T-5; • • “.c” = T-611. Consequently, the analysis is divided into six sub-models of mediation and moderation listed below: a) Models 2.1.a, 2.1.b 2.1.c, where: W = “Country”; Y= Overall financial performance (FP_OV), with the three distinct timeframes of EPS; b) Models 3.1.a, 3.1.b and 3.1.c, where: W= “Sector”; Y= Overall financial performance FP_OV), with the three distinct timeframes of EPS. All models were estimated using a macro called “PROCESS”(Hayes, 2012, 2013),, which is based on 10,000 bootstrap samples at 95% partial correction intervals (Efron, B., & Tibshirani, 1985)12. 5. Results In the three simple mediation models, the obtained values of R2 and of the F-test are significant. In the thesis, therefore, the results obtained from the elaboration are commented in detail, then the results are presented according to the order described in the Methodology section. a) Results of the processing of models 1.1.a, 1.1.b and 1.1.c The simple mediation model applied to 1.1.a, 1.1.b. 1.1.c, shows a negligible direct negative effect (i.e., humble in terms of coefficient) of EPS on the overall financial performance (FP_OV) in our sample of companies. This negative effect is mitigated by innovation (EIS). The negative direct effect and the positive mediating role increase moderately as the increasing of the delay between EPS and FP_OV (from model 1.1.a to model 1.1.c). b) Results of the processing of models 1.2.a, 1.2.b e 1.2.c The simple mediation models 1.2.a, 1.2.b. 1.2.c, considers the economic performance score (EP) as the dependent variable. As already observed for the overall performance (FP_OV), this model shows a negative and humble direct effect of EPS on EP. Although the regression coefficient takes on very low values, it is a little more accentuated than that observed in models 1.1.a, 1.1.b and 1.1.c referred to the impact of EPS on FP_OV. Again, the negative effect of the explanatory variable on the dependent variable is mitigated by the positive influence of the mediation variable EIS. Furthermore, in line with the results of the previous model, the positive impact of innovation on EP grows slightly as the increasing of the temporary timeframe EPS and EP increases (from model 1.2.a to model 1.2.c). c) Results of the processing of models 1.3.a, 1.3.b e 1.3.c In the simple mediation models 1.3.a, 1.3.b. and 1.3.c, the dependent variable is represented by the financial performance score (FP). Like the previous ones, there is a negative and very weak direct effect of EPS on financial performance (FP). Unlike what was observed in the previous simple mediation models (relative to the impact of the explanatory variable on FP_OV and EP respectively), for the first time the total effect of EPS on the dependent variable FP, albeit negative, decreases as the lag between EPS and FP13. 13 d) Results of the processing of models 2.1.a, 2.1.b e 2.1.c e 3.1.a, 3.1.b,3.1.c. Referring to the elaborations conducted with the six mediation and moderation models, the two moderation variables were not statistically significant for 95% and 90% confidence intervals. Therefore, the obtained results do not allow us to state in statistically indicative terms, the moderating role played by the variables “Country” and “Sector” in the relationship between Environmental regulation and firms performance mediated by innovation14. 6. Contributions to existing literature The empirical investigation conducted in the thesis offers various innovative ideas compared to the previous literature, starting from the methodological aspect. In fact, it was possible to verify the entire relational chain between Environmental regulation, innovation and corporate financial performance through the development of a simple mediation model, which is characterized by the identification of innovation as a mediation variable, due to the compatibility between the functions recognized to the innovative activity in PH and the characteristics of the mediation variable (M) which must: a) be caused by X, or at least be logically dependent on X; b) being able to logically cause or modify Y even independently of X. Another methodology innovation is the use of the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution Analysis (TOPSIS), which represents one of the most effective operational research techniques in the synthesis of the corporate financial performance (Ricca et al., 2022),, the dependent variable of our investigation. As mentioned, the application of TOPSIS to a set of 9 indicators has allowed us to calculate three different performance scores (economic, financial and overall), with a useful breakdown in terms of results referring to each individual dimensions. The choice to measure overall, economic and financial performance, brings the focus of Porter's hypothesis back to the original dimension of a micro nature, against the monopoly of macro studies in the reference scientific literature. Moreover, a further innovation compared to previous studies on PH, is the mix of simple mediation, mediation and moderation models and the TOPSIS technique. We would underline the use of open data multidimensional composite indicators for the investigation on the links between Environmental regulation, innovation and performance, The novelty can also be found in the way of using of these indicators: in fact, the Environmental Policy Stringency Index (EPS), expressive of Environmental regulation, has reduced the problems of endogeneity underlined in the literature; moreover, the application of the European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS) as a mediation variable, is a pioneering element in the studies on the PH Finally, it should be noted that the selection criteria of the sample of companies used in the investigation, made it possible to overcome some theoretical limits by considering the following elements: a) characteristics of the firms, our sample is made up of listed companies, mature organizations , responding to a unique system of rules; b) geographical characteristics and distribution of wealth; the sample of 15 companies is expressive of European diversity and can be clustered both in terms of territory and wealth; c) economic sector of the companies of the sample, a choice that takes into account the different speed of innovation’s diffusion and, consequently, the different increasing in performance. 7. Conclusions The investigation conducted in the thesis brought out two main relevant results in the field of studies on the relationship between Environmental regulation, innovation and corporate financial performance The first result, highlights how the Environmental regulation has a statistically significant but very weak and negative effect on the performance of firms (i.e., on the performance observed in a comprehensive perspective), which is mildly accentuated in the medium term The second empirical evidence suggests that Environmental regulation has a negative impact, albeit weakly, on economic performance (due to the compliance costs generated by it) but not on financial performance. In fact, companies seem to compensate almost entirely compliance costs thanks to the benefits inducted by the innovation. In fact, despite the negative impact of regulation in terms of monetary outflows, companies are able to maintain the balance of the financial structure thanks to effective choices of correlation between sources and uses, which make the Environmental regulation "neutral" in medium term. These last indications regarding the financial structure, can be deduced from the results of the tests of hypotheses H.1.b and H.2.b. 8. Limitations and directions for future research In the face of the contributions to existing literature, there are some limits arising from our research First of all, the relationship between Environmental regulation, innovation and business competitiveness can be explored through the development of mediation and moderation models. These evolutions would be useful for: a) deepening the lack of significance of "Country" and "Sector" as moderating variables aimed at assessing the different speed (between countries and between sectors) of diffusion of innovation and its related impacts on performance corporate; b) include mediation or moderation variables that capture, together with the economic results, the environmental and 16 social effects of the corporate activity (e.g. Global Reporting Initiative) and the related Environment, Social, Governance (ESG) scores. With regard to the possible directions of future research, all new research on the Porter Hypothesis should enhance the dynamic dimensions of the PH in order to test different delay structures aimed to verifying the variation of the effects induced by the Environmental regulation and by the competitiveness innovation. A further methodological suggestion for researchers could be to build expressive indicators of the severity of each type of Environmental regulation, comparable in a cross-country perspective. This evolution in the design of variables, would facilitate policy makers and researchers in the regulatory planning and regulatory evaluation phases. In addition, the new set of indicators could capture the impact of self-regulation and voluntary regulation on innovation and competitiveness of firms. It would be desirable to deepen the issue of the multidimensionality of the innovative performance of the public sector. in fact, to date, the current indicator systems do not provide relevant information on the effectiveness of the regulatory framework on innovation and on the rate of innovation within the public sector15. It may be helpful exploring and measuring the coordination capacity between policy makers and regulatory bodies, which should include the promotion and implementation of innovation among their main objectives. A viable idea may be to include the rate and dimensions of innovation in the impact assessments of the Regulation (both ex ante and ex post) in future analyses, setting timeframes dedicated to the review of the Regulation. Finally, future research could consider the role and evolution of new ultra-hybrid business models, which are on the border between profit-oriented companies with a strong orientation towards C.S.R and non-profit organizations (Loprevite, 2020). Indeed, the simultaneous researching of value for shareholders and for society seems to be inspired by the logic of PH. The adherence between the corporate governance values of the new "Fourth Sector" of the economy and Porter's formulations, could also be reflected in terms of new empirical results in the research of the relationships between Environmental regulation, innovation and competitiveness.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/184021
URN:NBN:IT:UNISTRADA-184021