Introduction Assuming that modern societies today are strongly influenced by globalization, which has led to various innovations in all spheres of life and, above all, to increased contact between English and other languages, it is probably fair to say that this process of internationalization has affected not only lifestyles and cultures, but also languages. There is much talk about the spread of English as a global language, which has changed the way we communicate and interact with each other through all media, technologies and the Internet, and has left relevant traces in languages (Crystal, 2001). This study was conducted to witness this predominant influence of English on other languages through the so-called Anglicisms, which are generally defined as "any individual or systemic linguistic feature adapted or adopted from English or inspired or reinforced by English models and used in intralingual communication in a language other than English " (Gottlieb, 2005:20). An attempt was therefore made to identify common large-scale patterns of these linguistic loanwords between languages, to examine the main areas in which these items are used extensively, and to outline the frequency, main reasons for use and participants' attitudes towards Anglicisms. This research specifically addressed five cross-case studies that related to different nationalities (Croatian, Hispanic-American, Italian, Spanish and Turkish). As each case involved a number of students of different languages, it was possible to sketch a wide-ranging analysis of features and processes associated with the phenomenon of Anglicisms. Each case represented an attempt to understand the diverse attitudes and habits of students in relation to Anglicisms, thus representing a part of a larger mosaic. As for the outline of the paper, the main sections are presented as follows. First, we have examined the literature of the main studies on the topic that form the background of this paper, then we have outlined a historical framework of the contacts between English and the selected languages and presented a picture of the role of English in the respective countries. Subsequently, we have also briefly pointed out the difference between English as a foreign language (hereafter EFL), which is considered a non-native language learned in one's own country (Balboni, 2008) and as a second language (hereafter ESL), which is considered a non-native language learned in the country of origin of native speakers (ibidem). Secondly, we have discussed the basic characteristics of loanwords or borrowings, calques and hybrids presented, according to the classifications and definitions in the works of Pulcini & Furiassi (2012), Pulcini, Furiassi & Rodríguez González (2012), Winter-Froemel & Onysko ( 2012), Furiassi & Gottlieb (2015), so that we later provided a brief linguistic scenario of the countries, selected as contexts for our case studies, paying attention to the stages of the diffusion of English loanwords in the target languages, selected for this research and drawing an overall picture of the uptake of Anglicisms with their main features. Thirdly, we presented the methodology and the research hypotheses and then, we described the experimental process, which was carried out using three methodological instruments: questionnaires, translation tasks and interviews, which helped us to investigate the extent and consequences of the influence of English loanwords in the selected languages. Finally, we analyzed and discussed the data obtained and made a comparison between the different case studies. Objectives and research questions This research project, which has as its objective the comparative study between different languages and Anglicisms as an object of observation and investigation, has taken into consideration the socio-linguistic and cultural variables of students from different countries. This study, therefore, combines theoretical research on the presence of Anglicisms in several languages with practical experiments that revealed frequency, usage and types of the borrowings in question. Therefore, by outlining a broad scenario about the use of Anglicisms in some languages, this study also aimed to shed light on students' attitudes towards them and to understand whether learners have familiarity with these lexical items. The study tried to answer the following research questions: 1. To what extent do Anglicisms influence EFL/ESL students’ language? 2. What are the main areas of exposure to Anglicisms for young adults? 3. How, why and where do university students use Anglicisms in their native language? To answer the first question, the results provided rich data on the influence of English borrowings on young adults' language, highlighting students' attitudes towards the borrowings under study and revealing the extent of their use. The findings from the experiments showed quite a high proportion of Anglicisms in the linguistic repertoire of all groups and hence, these data allowed us to understand that most of these borrowings now occupy a robust niche in the language of young adults in all the contexts studied. This reveals the popularity of Anglicisms among youngsters and their occurrence as part of the lexical system of several languages. As for the second research question, the study then focused on some everyday contexts of the young adults and tried to identify the areas where the use of Anglicisms is particularly relevant. In this regard, a notable point is that the results showed that the overwhelming number of Anglicisms are found in domains such as ICT, Social media and the Internet, where the percentage of Anglicisms seems to be highest for the most part, as these are the areas where people are most likely to come into contact with English according to our participants. We found that many students of different nationalities generally absorb a large number of lexical loanwords outside the learning environment, especially in the above-mentioned areas. The third research question related to how, why, and where students use Anglicisms in their native language, and thus, through the survey instruments, we learned the attitudes of our selected young people. In terms of how students use Anglicisms, i.e. what kind of Anglicisms they use, we can say that we learned from the analysis that the repertoire is diverse as it contains both lexical hybrids and pure forms and both seem to be well integrated into their language. Thus, as far as the type of Anglicisms is concerned, students made different lexical choices based on the usage imposed on them by their mother tongue. As for the reasons to use Anglicisms, the students indicated that the main motivations were related to: personal desire to expand vocabulary; considering some Anglicisms as an integral part of modern youth language; feeling of modernity and trend; cultural prestige; useful structural features such as brevity, phonic effect, flexibility in word formation; lack of native-language equivalents. All these reasons helped to understand that young adults generally accept positively the fact that many Anglicisms have become fully integrated into their native language and see no harm in the ever-increasing number of these borrowings in everyday conversations or even in written language. About where students use these lexical items the most, the results revealed that the percentages varied in terms of semantic domains and showed a close relationship with the young people's areas of interest, such as information and communication technologies (hereafter ICT), social media, the Internet, music and friends. Limitations of existing literature We mention some representative studies that show a picture on the diffusion of Anglicisms in the languages, such as those of: Pulcini (2017) which explored multiple phenomena related to Anglicisms in the contemporary Italian language; Furiassi (2006) who focused in particular on the category of false Anglicisms in Italian; Perić and Škifić (2015), who emphasized necessary and not borrowing in Croatian; Rodríguez-González (2013), who made a classification of adapted and unadapted Anglicisms in comparison to the morphological system of Spanish; while Echeverría and González-Fernández who traced various forms of linguistic borrowings from English found in the Spanish-American language; DoğançayAktuna and Kiziltepe (2005) which testified how the dissemination of this latest generation lexicon is largely conveyed by the mass media in the Turkish language. Moreover, other studies conducted research on the spread of Anglicisms among several languages, such as: Görlach (2002 b) who described common phenomena of Anglicisms in European languages; Pulcini, Furiassi and Rodríguez González (2012) who outlined a picture of the presence of Anglicisms in some European languages (Armenian, Danish, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Polish, Serbian, Spanish and Swedish); Fischer and Pulaczewska (2009), that illustrated common aspects in the use of Anglicisms in some European languages, focusing in particular on German and Polish; by Vázquez, Lario-de-Oñate and López (2015) who carried out a comparison of the use of Anglicisms in the Argentine, Mexican and Spanish press. Certainly, the mentioned studies have provided interesting insights within the field of Anglicisms and their diffusion, but they did not offer specific contributions about how these loanwords work in the youth language, performing a comparison among several languages. Unfortunately, they did not offer many and specific examples of experiments with young population. To those mentioned studies, we refer to others that, while strongly emphasizing that loanwords can expand the lexical knowledge of young ESL/EFL students, as for example the research of Shaffer (2008), Daulton (2008), Bollen (2008), Inagawa (2014) and Otwinowska (2016) which have provided interesting insights into the topic. In particular, we can fully share Shaffer's (2014) hypothesis about the broad pedagogical potential of Anglicisms, that international words borrowed from English: help students expand their vocabulary; draw attention to specific lexical units used in specific contexts; strengthen their communication skills; promote their adaptation to new concepts; develop their linguistic intuition and metalinguistic competence; improve their communication skills; make the understanding of the lexicon more accessible in areas such as the Internet and social media, but practical application in the field of all these principles would be needed, which can be translated into concrete ELT techniques. Therefore, all of the above provide excellent pedagogical suggestions that serve as a starting point for developing strategies that can be applied in real classroom contexts. In this case, the field should indeed be widened and interventions should be put into practice that can show how and to what extent Anglicisms can lead to a real expansion of the English lexicon and how they can serve as levers to enhance ESL/EFL learning. Methodology The above mentioned instruments complemented each other and they provided a key opportunity to explore the phenomenon in depth, to learn about the trends of the participants and to outline a framework as complete as possible. Each of the instruments had its important function of adding meaningful details to enrich the overall picture. The method attempted to be reliable by replicating the same survey items in the different groups and moreover, in order to ensure the validity, both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection were used. As Angouri (2010:33) stated, “while quantitative research is useful towards a generalization of research findings, qualitative approaches are particularly valuable in providing indepth and rich data” and “mixed-methods designs arguably contribute to a better understanding of the various phenomena under investigation”. Indeed, quantitative analysis was used to determine the percentage of occurrence of Anglicisms; while qualitative analysis was applied to describe the attitudes and motivations of the participants. The first experimental phase involved the administration of a questionnaire, which in turn was divided into three macroblocks: the first part contained sociodemographic questions; the second examined the learners’ linguistic repertoire; the third investigated their use of English in different interactional contexts (family, friends, study) and which examined the learners' attitudes towards a sectoral category of Anglicisms. The second phase included translation tasks, where we were able to observe which words the learners retained or translated from EFL/ESL to L1. Therefore, we can say that this kind of test has had a high effectiveness from the point of view of our study, because the lexical transfer from EFL/ESL to L1 allows a contrastive analysis and this continuous comparison between the two languages leads students to gain some familiarity with this lexical repertoire and over time and with practice, they become more confident in their ESL/EFL lexical competence (Bollen, 2018: 187). The analyzed phenomena highlighted the fact that students often performed a positive transfer from English to their native language during translation tasks, by having kept Anglicisms in the L1 texts. This phenomenon supports our idea that a pre-existing knowledge of student loanwords can lead to the confidence towards a repertoire of Anglicisms and that this fact can help to consolidate and improve lexical competence in LS or L2. In the final phase, students were subjected to short individual interviews designed to explore aspects that emerged from the questionnaire and the choice of translation. In general terms, the interviews had a metacognitive function, as they made the students reflect on the presence of Anglicisms in their everyday life, in order to get an idea of the extent to which they were embedded in their lives, showing a common linguistic repertoire among groups students (Smit, 2010). In fact, throughout the interviews, student declared that Anglicisms can be an important resource for ESL/EFL. The testing set enabled us to investigate the patterns of loanwords in a sample of university students of different L1 and an age group between 19 and 25 years. A total of 115 participants were recruited for this study (15 from Croatia, 31 from Italy, 32 from Spain, 16 from Turkey and 21 from Latin America), belonging to the following institutional contexts: University of Zagreb (Croatia); University for Foreigners “Dante Alighieri” (Italy); University of Valladolid (Spain); Munzur University (Turkey); JMU University (USA). The samples had similar overall characteristics: All had previously attended compulsory English courses at school, they were also attending English courses at university at the time of the interview, and they also had a common pre-intermediate level in English, ranging from level A2 to level B1, according to the European Reference Framework for languages (CEFR). The status of English differed among the groups, as it was taught as a foreign language for the Croats, Italians, Spaniards and Turks, while it was considered a second language for the Hispanic-Americans (through the International Center of the American University). In order to narrow down the search, we opted for the limited category of 80 entries chosen among the frequency or handy Anglicisms (Núñez Nogueroles, 2018), namely student-friendly loanwords related to three familiar domains: a) ICTs, Social media and the Internet; b) Recreational activities (hobbies, entertainment, leisure); c) Daily life (routine matters, food&drinks, habits and feelings). These domains of frequency Anglicisms “may be a fertile ground for scaffolding as they may provide a starting point for learners who lack effective learning strategies and possess an intermediate SL competence” (Rodríguez-González, 2013: 295). The analyzed phenomena shed light on the fact that learners often made a positive transfer from English to their native language when they chose to retain Anglicisms in translations, so the extent of learners' pre-existing knowledge of loan words could enhance ESL/EFL lexical competence. Results The surveys made it possible to perceive students' linguistic attitudes and to identify general trends through targeted measures. From the collections of data from the questionnaires used in the different contexts, it appears that most learners already had an important lexical background consisting of these frequent Anglicisms in their L1. As Simons (2009:117) pointed out “data sets that can be categorized, ordered and examined for connections, patterns and propositions that seek to explain the data” and to this end, through our process of data analysis, common items (responses, statements, expressed perceptions or thoughts) of the participants were coded and documented for frequency determination. Thus, this analysis showed how Anglicisms generally map into our different languages and which are the English-based loanwords commonly used in our sample’s language. At the end of the experiments, we carried out a cross-case analysis that focused on the key similarities and differences of the five cases in terms of incorporating English loanwords in languages. In order to provide a detailed framework for a comparative approach and a broad cross-cultural perspective, we used the analysis of the five case-studies to derive some insights into the attitudes towards English loanwords in our case studies and to understand the process and degree of integration of loanwords in such languages. Several marked observations emerged from the data comparison such as significant difference in the percentage of loanwords between different semantic domains and different mechanisms in the Anglicisms uptake (e.g. adaptations and semi-adaptations, calques and hybrids; adoption of pure forms; gender assignments and plural markers). Furthermore, by comparing the results in the five contexts, it was interesting to note different mechanisms of adoption of Anglicisms, since many forms have been adapted to the morphological system of our students’ languages and above all, the English verbs have been conjugated with the affixes of the L1 system, while other loanwords have been kept in the English proper form, called pure Anglicisms (Pulcini & Furiassi, 2012). It was very engaging to discover also common trends with regard to a similar frequency of use of Anglicisms in certain areas among the case studies. For easy comparison of the results, graphs and tables with percentages and numerical data were used. It must be emphasized that the quantities and data sets were different, as the number of members of the individual samples differed from each other. Therefore, a direct comparison was not possible, so we worked with percentage and proportion calculations to normalize the data. Results reflected a realistic picture of the presence of English loanwords in the language of our selected young adults and this suggests that most of these items consistently occupied a robust niche in the language of young adults of all five contexts under consideration. Contributions to existing literature We hope that this current study about the impact of Anglicisms on languages has contributed to open up new perspectives and insights in the field. There have been many recent studies on the spread of Anglicisms in various languages of the world, but few but few researchers have carried out a comparative study in the languages of young people shedding light on the use, frequency and typology of Anglicisms employed. By mentioning some similar studies in the existing literature, we tried to provide an heterogenous picture of Anglicisms, and our study can be a small contribution to this existing literature, adding a small piece to the large mosaic of investigation concerning the global spread of loanwords in the contemporary youth language. Thanks to the experiments carried out in this study, we have observed how the phenomenon of Anglicisms presents similar facets in some cases, but also offers room for differentiation in some contexts. Generally speaking, most of the participants acknowledged loanwords as important tools for expanding their ESL/EFL vocabulary and their statements and opinions can only serve as a stimulus to delve into these aspects in the future and lay the groundwork for discovering the advantages that loanwords might provide to students and also to educators in the sector. Conclusions This research presented the results and findings of a descriptive and comparative study on the distribution of Anglicisms in different languages, after examining the types, token frequencies, the incidence rate. Therefore, this analysis has tried to create a map of how Anglicisms are generally distributed in the different L1s and has tried to delineate general trends, by finding out which are the most widely used loanwords in the languages of our participants. For this reason, we think that, given their pervasive presence in the lives of university students, Anglicisms could be included in the ELT curricula in universities. On this idea, further research could be carried out in the future that would give concrete evidence on the connection between students' use of Anglicisms and their potential in the expansion of ESL/EFL vocabulary, by embedding loanwords in ELT processes. In this regard, Sundqvist's study (2009: 56) suggested just how these loanwords can have a preparatory effect on English vocabulary learning and through his experiments, he tried to demonstrate how external exposure to a language, defined as "extramural English", offers important opportunities to assimilate lexical inputs. This underlines how learners, continuously exposed to Anglicisms in their daily lives, can be more predisposed towards this language learning in educational settings and can feel confident in mastering a certain linguistic repertoire useful when dealing with this lexicon in their ELT classes. Sundqvist (2009)’s study is also supported by other subsequent studies such as those by Al-Larsson & MacLeod (2011) and Al-Zoubi (2018) which emphasized how exposure to a language is considered effective when the student can use that language anywhere and at any moment. We, therefore, agree with Bollen (2018: 51) who underlined Anglicisms can be "a means to increase confidence in learning the English vocabulary" and support "an important way of an investigation that must still be fully exploited". Limitations and directions for future research There are certainly limits to this research, like for example the fact that it was not possible to conduct the tests of all the case studies in the presence due to the Covid19 emergency. A future study conducted in the presence and with a larger number of participants could add new results to this study. In addition, further research could broaden the framework of Anglicisms-based contents, such as including new semantic areas, loan classes, semantic and formal features, phonetic and phonological patterns, word formations and collocations, so the scenario may extend in the future. For example, in order to gather new data, it might also be productive to examine new terms for example, from TV, social media, the Internet, or explore other areas where Anglicisms are spreading. The inclusion of additional languages with other comparative material could also contribute to an even broader understanding of the typology of loanwords in the various languages, as well as support and extend the results of this research project. Another future project plan to exploit English loanword in the field of teaching, which is a subject that needs further investigation and insights, on which it has yet to be written. The present study has provided an overview of the phenomenon of Anglicisms, by involving a number of young students, but it cannot yet be fully generalized, as further studies should involve larger populations of samples that can confirm and validate our data and get a more complete picture of Anglicisms in the language of young people of different nationalities. Another expansion of this study could be to carry out a survey on the opinions and attitudes of adults towards Anglicisms in their own L1s, which could be compared with the opinions and attitudes found in our youth population. This would allow researchers to find out which people are most likely to use Anglicisms and for what reasons, using for example other selection criteria such as age, gender, social status. In this research, an attempt was made to investigate the lexical influence of English on the chosen languages and to demonstrate the use of English loanwords through written language models, but future research may also focus on the spoken language to provide a more complete picture. Given the frequent use that young people make of Anglicisms, a future line of investigation could be to understand if Anglicisms favor a certain familiarity with English, thus producing an expansion of the vocabulary in L2. After the observations in experiments, we learned that loanwords could be a resource for ESL/EFL students, as the constant use of Anglicisms in everyday life enables them to become familiar with English in order to be able to expand ESL/EFL vocabulary (Cohen et al., 2007). In the interview stage, most of the students stated that there was a positive relationship between exposure to Anglicisms and the learning of English vocabulary (Larsson & MacLeod, 2011). In fact, most asserted that having acquired a good number of Anglicisms, also coming from various sectors of life, they felt more confident in mastering the English vocabulary. So, these assumptions give room for the fact that Anglicisms, by encourage the expansion of the English vocabulary, could also be used in the process in English Language Teaching (hereinafter ELT) with proper techniques and strategies, which could not be applied in this study. In the future, it could be verified with further experiments and in class-practices how the continuous exposure to external inputs (Anglicisms to be traced in various fields) can have a positive and lasting impact on the ESL/EFL lexical expansion, which thus by spontaneous acquisition can later become systematized learning through subsequent formal ELT interventions (Hung, 2012).
Introduzione Partendo dal presupposto che le società moderne sono state fortemente influenzate dalla globalizzazione, che ha portato diverse innovazioni in ogni settore della vita e che ha rafforzato i contatti tra l'inglese e le altre lingue, si può affermare che questo processo di internazionalizzazione condiziona non solo i modi di vita e le culture, ma anche le lingue. Si parla di diffusione della lingua inglese come lingua globale che ormai circola attraverso tutti i mezzi di comunicazione, le tecnologie ed internet lasciando traccia nelle lingue in maniera consistente (Crystal, 2001). Il presente studio è stato condotto per testimoniare questa influenza preponderante dell’inglese sulle altre lingue attraverso i cosiddetti anglicismi, generalmente definiti come “qualsiasi caratteristica linguistica individuale o sistemica, adattata o adottata dall'inglese, o ispirata o potenziata da modelli inglesi, utilizzata nella comunicazione intra-linguistica in una lingua diversa dall'inglese” (Gottlieb, 2005:20, mia traduzione). Si è cercato, dunque, di identificare esempi comuni di questi prestiti linguistici tra le lingue, di indagare le aree principali in cui questi vengono maggiormente utilizzati e di delineare la frequenza, le principali ragioni di utilizzo e gli atteggiamenti dei partecipanti rispetto agli anglicismi. Questa ricerca si è occupata nello specifico di cinque casi studio di diverse nazionalità ed essendo ognuno di essi, costituito da un gruppo di studenti multilingue (croato, italiano, ispano-americano, spagnolo e turco), è stato possibile tracciare un'analisi ad ampio raggio di caratteristiche e processi associati al fenomeno degli anglicismi. Ogni caso ha rappresentato un tentativo di comprendere molteplici atteggiamenti e abitudini degli studenti in relazione agli anglicismi, così da rappresentare un tassello di un mosaico più ampio. Per quanto riguarda lo schema della tesi, si riportano le sezioni principali che hanno seguito un preciso iter di sviluppo. In primo luogo, si è esaminata la letteratura dei principali studi sull'argomento che ha fatto da sfondo a questa tesi, quindi è stata delineata una cornice storica dei contatti tra l'inglese e le lingue considerate, presentando un quadro generico sul ruolo dell'inglese nei paesi di riferimento. Successivamente, si è puntualizzato quale sia la differenza tra l'inglese come lingua straniera (da qui in avanti LS), intesa come una lingua non materna appresa nel proprio paese (Balboni, 2008) e come seconda lingua (da qui in avanti L2), intesa sempre come non materna, ma appresa nel paese d'origine dei parlanti madrelingua (ibidem). In secondo luogo, sono state illustrate le definizioni e le caratteristiche basilari di prestiti linguistici, calchi e ibridi, seguendo le classificazioni adottate nei lavori di Pulcini & Furiassi (2012), Pulcini, Furiassi & Rodríguez González (2012), WinterFroemel & Onysko (2012), Furiassi & Gottlieb (2015), quindi in seguito abbiamo descritto il panorama linguistico dei paesi scelti come contesti per i nostri casi studio, prestando attenzione alle fasi di diffusione dei prestiti linguistici inglesi nelle lingue selezionate per questa ricerca, e dando un’idea generale delle caratteristiche chiave degli anglicismi. In terzo luogo, sono state presentate la metodologia e le ipotesi di ricerca e quindi è stato anche descritto il processo sperimentale condotto con tre strumenti metodologici: questionari, compiti di traduzione e interviste che ci hanno aiutato a esaminare la portata e le conseguenze dell'influenza dei prestiti linguistici inglesi. Infine abbiamo analizzato e discusso i dati emersi e fatto una comparazione tra i diversi casi studio. Obiettivi e domande di ricerca Questo progetto di ricerca, che ha come obiettivo lo studio comparativo tra lingue diverse e come oggetto di osservazione e indagine gli anglicismi, ha tenuto in considerazione le variabili socio-linguistiche e culturali degli studenti provenienti da Paesi diversi. Lo studio ha combinato ricerca teorica sulla presenza di anglicismi in più lingue con esperimenti pratici, che hanno evidenziato l'uso, la frequenza, e le tipologie dei prestiti in questione. Pertanto, questa ricerca, nel delineare un ampio scenario sull'uso degli anglicismi in alcune lingue, vuole mettere in luce anche gli atteggiamenti degli studenti verso di essi e capire se essi hanno una certa familiarità con questi items lessicali. L'indagine mirava a rispondere ai seguenti quesiti di ricerca: 1. In che misura gli anglicismi influenzano il linguaggio degli studenti di lingua inglese? 2. Quali sono le principali aree di esposizione all'anglicismo per i giovani adulti? 3. Come, dove e perché gli studenti universitari usano gli anglicismi nella loro lingua madre? Per rispondere alla prima domanda, i risultati hanno fornito numerosi dati sull'influenza che i prestiti inglesi hanno sul linguaggio dei giovani, mettendo in rilievo anche l'atteggiamento degli studenti nei confronti dei prestiti selezionati e rivelando l’estensione del loro utilizzo. I risultati degli esperimenti, infatti, hanno rivelato una percentuale piuttosto alta degli anglicismi utilizzati nel repertorio linguistico di tutti i gruppi e questi dati, dunque, ci hanno fatto capire che la maggior parte di queste voci, attualmente, occupa una nicchia robusta nel linguaggio dei giovani adulti, soprattutto nei contesti presi in esame. Ciò rivela la popolarità degli anglicismi nella lingua giovanile e la loro presenza come parte ormai consolidata del sistema lessicale delle diverse lingue. Relativamente alla seconda domanda di ricerca, l'indagine si è poi focalizzata su alcuni contesti quotidiani con cui abitualmente i giovani si misurano, per individuare quelle aree in cui l'esposizione agli anglicismi è più rilevante. A questo proposito, i risultati hanno mostrato che il numero prevalente di anglicismi si trova in aree dove, secondo i nostri partecipanti, appare una percentuale ampiamente maggiore di utilizzo di anglicismi, e cioè le nuove tecnologie per l’informazione e la comunicazione, i social media e internet. La terza domanda di ricerca riguardava il come, il dove e il perché gli studenti usino gli anglicismi nella loro lingua e così, attraverso gli strumenti di indagine, abbiamo appreso quali fossero le attitudini degli studenti. Per quanto riguarda in che modo gli studenti usano gli anglicismi e quali siano le tipologie, possiamo dire che dalle analisi si è appreso che il repertorio degli anglicismi era vario, perché includeva sia gli ibridi lessicali che gli anglicismi puri ed entrambe le forme apparivano ben integrate nella loro lingua. In riferimento alla tipologia, gli studenti adottavano scelte lessicali diverse in base all’uso imposto dalla lingua madre, detta anche lingua materna o lingua nativa (di seguito L1). Per quanto riguarda il dove gli studenti usano gli anglicismi maggiormente, dai risultati ottenuti, si evince che le percentuali variavano in base ai domini semantici e l'uso degli anglicismi da parte dei nostri partecipanti ha rivelato una stretta connessione con le sfere di interesse giovanile come ad esempio, le tecnologie dell’informazione e della comunicazione, i social media, Internet, la musica, gli amici. Invece, per quanto concerne il perché utilizzassero gli anglicismi, gli studenti riferivano che i motivi principali erano: desiderio personale di arricchire il proprio vocabolario; convinzione che alcuni anglicismi siano parte ormai integrante del linguaggio giovanile; senso di modernità e di tendenza; prestigio culturale; caratteristiche strutturali utili come brevità, effetto fonico, flessibilità nella formazione delle parole; mancanza degli equivalenti nativi. Questi motivi aiutano a capire che i giovani adulti hanno accettato positivamente che molti anglicismi si siano completamente integrati nella loro lingua madre e non vedono alcun danno nel fatto che ci sia un numero sempre crescente di prestiti linguistici dall’inglese. Limitazioni della letteratura esistente Nella ricognizione della letteratura citiamo alcuni studi rappresentativi che mostrano un quadro sulla diffusione degli anglicismi nelle lingue oggetto del nostro studio come quelli di Pulcini (2017) che esplora molteplici fenomeni relativi agli anglicismi nella lingua italiana contemporanea; di Furiassi (2006) che si è concentrato in particolare sulla categoria dei falsi anglicismi in italiano; di Perić e Škifić (2015), invece, che enfatizzano sui prestiti necessari e non in croato; di Rodríguez-González (2013), che fa una classificazione degli anglicismi adattati e non adattati al sistema morfologico dello spagnolo; mentre Echeverría e González-Fernández che rintracciano varie forme di prestiti lingusitici dall’inglese che si trovano nella lingua ispanoamericana; anche Doğançay-Aktuna e Kiziltepe (2005) che testimoniano come la disseminazione di questo lessico di ultima generazione sia veicolato in grande misura dai mass media nella lingua turca. A questi si aggiungo anche altri studi che hanno condotto delle ricerche sulla diffusione degli anglicismi tra più lingue come ad esempio: Görlach (2002 b) che ha descritto dei fenomeni comuni di anglicismi nelle lingue europee; Pulcini, Furiassi e Rodríguez González (2012) che hanno delineato un quadro sulla presenza degli anglicismi in alcune lingue europee (Armeno, Danese, Francese, Tedesco, Italiano, Norvegese, Polacco, Serbo , Spagnolo e Svedese); anche lo studio di Fischer e Pulaczewska (2009) che hanno illustrato aspetti comuni nell’uso degli anglicismi in alcune lingue europee soffermandosi in particolare sul tedesco ed il polacco; di Vázquez, Lario-de-Oñate e López (2015) che hanno portato avanti una comparazione dell’uso degli anglicismi nella stampa argentina, messicana e spagnola. Gli studi citati hanno, sicuramente, fornito spunti interessanti nell’ambito degli anglicismi e della loro diffusione, ma non hanno offerto specifici contributi su come funzionano questi prestiti linguistici nella lingua giovanile, effettuando un confronto tra più lingue. Sfortunatamente hanno rivelato delle limitazioni perché, non offrivano molti e specifici esempi di esperimenti con la popolazione giovanile. A quelli già citati, aggiungiamo anche altri studi validi che hanno fermamente sostenuto che i prestiti linguistici possono ampliare il bagaglio lessicale dei giovani studenti di lingua inglese, ma anche questi nonostante la loro validità, hanno qualche limitazione, perché non hanno effettuato prove tangibili degli effetti benefici degli anglicismi sull’acquisizione del lessico inglese. Queste ricerche sono quelle di Shaffer (2008), Daulton (2008), Bollen (2008), Inagawa (2014) e Otwinowska (2016) che hanno fornito spunti interessanti all’argomento. In particolare, sulla base delle ipotesi di Shaffer (2014) ad esempio, sull'ampio potenziale pedagogico degli anglicismi, possiamo condividere pienamente la sua idea che le parole internazionali prese in prestito dall'inglese possono: aiutare gli studenti ad ampliare il proprio vocabolario; focalizzare la propria attenzione su unità lessicali distinte utilizzate in contesti specifici; rafforzare le capacità comunicative; favorire il loro adattamento a nuovi concetti; sviluppare la propria intuizione linguistica e competenza metalinguistica; migliorare le proprie capacità di comunicazione; rendere più accessibile la comprensione del lessico in campi come Internet e i social media, ma ci sarebbe bisogno di un’applicazione pratica di tutti questi principi sul campo, che si possa tradurre in concrete tecniche didattiche. Grazie a questi spunti interessanti, si dovrebbe ampliare il campo e metter in pratica degli interventi che possano dimostrare come e quanto gli anglicismi si sono inseriti nelle lingue dei giovani e come essi possano portare ad una reale espansione del lessico inglese, servendo da leva per migliorare l’apprendimento della lingua inglese come LS/L2. Metodologia I tre strumenti di indagine citati sono stati complementari tra loro e hanno offerto un'occasione fondamentale per studiare a fondo il fenomeno, conoscere le attitudini dei partecipanti e delineare un quadro che fosse il più possibile completo. Ciascuno degli strumenti aveva la sua importante funzione di aggiungere dettagli significativi per arricchire l'intero quadro generale. Il metodo ha cercato di essere affidabile replicando gli stessi elementi dell'indagine nei diversi gruppi ed inoltre, per garantirne la validità ci si è avvalsi di un approccio sia quantitativo che qualitativo. Come ha affermato Angouri (2010:33), "mentre la ricerca quantitativa è utile per una generalizzazione dei risultati della ricerca, gli approcci qualitativi sono particolarmente preziosi nel fornire dati approfonditi e ricchi" e "i progetti con metodi misti probabilmente contribuiscono a una migliore comprensione dei vari fenomeni oggetto di indagine”. Infatti, l'analisi quantitativa è stata utilizzata per rilevare le percentuali di incidenza degli anglicismi; mentre il metodo qualitativo è stato applicato per descrivere gli atteggiamenti e le motivazioni dei partecipanti. Il set dei test ci ha permesso di indagare su vari modelli dei prestiti linguistici in un campione di studenti universitari di diversa L1 e di una fascia di età compresa tra i 19 e i 25 anni. Per questo studio sono stati reclutati in totale 115 partecipanti (15 dalla Croazia, 31 dall'Italia, 32 dalla Spagna, 16 dalla Turchia e 21 dall'America Latina), appartenenti ai seguenti contesti istituzionali: University of Zagreb (Zagabria - Croazia); Università per Stranieri “Dante Alighieri” (Reggio Calabria - Italia); Universidad de Valladolid (Valladolid - Spagna); Munzur University (Tunceli - Turchia); JMU University (Harrisonburg -U SA). I campioni, nel loro complesso, presentavano delle caratteristiche simili: tutti avevano frequentato in precedenza corsi d’inglese obbligatori a scuola, inoltre al momento dell’indagine frequentavano lezioni di inglese all'università ed avevano anche una comune competenza pre-intermedia della lingua inglese che andava, secondo il Quadro di riferimento europeo per le lingue (CEFR), dal livello A2 al livello B1. Lo status dell'inglese risultava diverso nel sottogruppo degli studenti ispano-americani dove veniva insegnato come seconda lingua (nel centro internazionale dell’ateneo statunitense), a differenza degli studenti delle università europee e turca che lo studiavano come lingua straniera. Per restringere il campo di ricerca, si è optato per una categoria limitata di 80 anglicismi, scelti tra i cosiddetti “frequency or handy Anglicisms” (Echeverría Arriagada, 2016b), vale a dire prestiti linguistici definiti a portata degli studenti, legati a tre domini familiari per gli studenti: a) tecnologie per l’informazione e la comunicazione, Social Media e Internet; b) attività ricreative (hobby, intrattenimento, svago); c) vita quotidiana (abitudini, sentimenti, cibo e bevande). In effetti, i domini degli anglicismi di frequenza possono essere un terreno fertile per apprendere meglio il lessico, in quanto possono fornire una buona base per gli studenti che mancano di strategie di apprendimento efficaci e possiedono una competenza intermedia della lingua (Rodríguez-González, 2013: 295). La prima fase sperimentale ha visto la somministrazione di un questionario di venti quesiti, ripartito a sua volta in tre macro-blocchi: la prima parte contenente dei quesiti socio-demografici; la seconda che indagava sul repertorio linguistico dei discenti; la terza che esaminava il loro uso della lingua inglese nei vari contesti di interazione (famiglia, amici, studio) e che misurava gli atteggiamenti degli apprendenti nei confronti di una categoria settoriale di anglicismi. La seconda fase sperimentale ha previsto dei compiti di traduzione, per i quali si è utilizzato materiale testuale relativo ai domini menzionati, dove abbiamo potuto osservare quante e quali parole gli studenti abbiano mantenuto o tradotto dalla L2/LS alla L1. Possiamo, quindi, dire che questa tipologia di test ha avuto un'alta efficacia dal punto di vista della nostra indagine, perché il transfer lessicale dalla L2 alla L1 permette un’analisi contrastiva ed il continuo confronto tra le due lingue porta gli studenti ad acquisire una certa familiarità con questo repertorio lessicale e ad avere, col tempo e con la pratica, una fiducia sempre più crescente nella loro competenza in L2/LS (Bollen, 2018:187). I fenomeni analizzati hanno messo in luce come gli studenti abbiano spesso eseguito un trasferimento positivo dall'inglese alla loro lingua madre durante i compiti di traduzione, avendo spesso mantenuto gli anglicismi nei testi in L1. Questo fatto supporta, quindi, l’idea che una conoscenza preesistente dei prestiti degli studenti possa testimoniare una certa fiducia nei confronti di un repertorio di anglicismi e che questo possa aiutare a consolidare e migliorare la competenza lessicale nella LS o L2. Nell’ultima fase, gli studenti sono stati sottoposti a brevi interviste individuali, che tendevano ad approfondire aspetti emersi dal questionario e dalle scelte adottate nella traduzione. In termini generali, le interviste hanno avuto una funzione metacognitiva, perchè gli studenti hanno potuto riflettere sulla presenza degli anglicismi nel loro quotidiano e capire quanto questi fossero incardinati nella loro vita, mostrando una conoscenza pregressa e un repertorio linguistico più o meno condiviso tra i gruppi (Smit, 2010). Gli studenti stessi hanno dichiarato che, loro avviso, gli anglicismi possono rappresentare un’importante risorsa per l’arricchimento lessicale nella LS/L2. Risultati Le rilevazioni hanno permesso di prendere atto degli atteggiamenti linguistici degli studenti e di rilevare dei trend di massima, attraverso le risposte dei partecipanti. Dalle rilevazioni dei dati tratti dai questionari somministrati nei vari contesti risulta che la maggior parte degli apprendenti già presentava, nella propria L1, un bagaglio lessicale importante costituito dai questi anglicismi di frequenza. Come riferisce Simons (2009:117) "i set di dati possono essere classificati, ordinati ed esaminati per connessioni, modelli e proposizioni che cercano di spiegare i dati" e a tal fine, attraverso il nostro processo di analisi dei dati, gli elementi comuni dei partecipanti (risposte, affermazioni, percezioni espresse o pensieri) sono stati codificati e documentati per la determinazione della frequenza e dell’uso. Alla fine degli esperimenti abbiamo effettuato un'analisi incrociata che si è concentrata sulle principali somiglianze e differenze riscontrate nei cinque casi studio, in termini di incorporazione di prestiti linguistici inglesi. Dal confronto dei dati, sono emerse osservazioni rilevanti sia sul processo che sul grado di integrazione dei prestiti linguistici e sono emersi altri aspetti quali la differenza significativa nella percentuale di prestiti linguistici tra i diversi domini semantici e i diversi meccanismi nell'assorbimento degli anglicismi (adattamenti e semi-adattamenti, calchi e ibridi; adozione di forme pure; assegnazioni diverse di genere e marcatori plurali). Inoltre, confrontando i risultati nei cinque contesti, è stato interessante notare diversi meccanismi di adozione degli anglicismi, nel senso che molte forme sono state adattate al sistema morfologico delle lingue dei nostri studenti e soprattutto i verbi provenienti dall'inglese sono stati coniugati con gli affissi delle lingue native, mentre altri anglicismi sono stati mantenuti con la forma propria inglese, i cosiddetti anglicismi puri (Pulcini & Furiassi, 2012). Per un facile confronto dei risultati sono stati utilizzati grafici e tabelle oltre che dati numerici, percentuali e proporzioni con lo scopo di uniformare nel modo più preciso possibile dei gruppi, i cui membri differivano tra loro per quantità. Questi risultati rispecchiano un quadro realistico della presenza di prestiti linguistici inglesi nella lingua dei giovani selezionati e questo ci fa capire che la maggior parte di queste voci occupa, in maniera sistematica, una nicchia robusta nel linguaggio dei giovani di tutti e cinque i contesti. Contributi alla letteratura esistente Auspichiamo che questo studio sull'impatto degli anglicismi in varie lingue abbia contribuito ad aprire nuove prospettive nel campo, affinché future ricerche possano aggiungere ulteriori dati. Ci sono stati tantissimi studi recenti sulla diffusione degli anglicismi in varie lingue del mondo, ma pochi ricercatori hanno effettuato uno studio comparativo nelle lingue dei giovani, facendo luce sull’uso, la frequenza e la tipologia degli anglicismi impiegati. Citando alcuni studi simili, presenti nella letteratura esistente abbiamo cercato di offrire un quadro piuttosto eterogeneo degli anglicismi nelle varie lingue del mondo, ed il nostro è un piccolo contributo che si vuole unire alla letteratura esistente, aggiungendo un piccolo tassello al grande mosaico di indagine che riguarda la diffusione degli anglicismi nella lingua giovanile contemporanea a livello globale. Grazie agli esperimenti portati avanti in questo studio, abbiamo osservato come il fenomeno degli anglicismi presenti sfaccettature simili in alcuni casi, ma offra anche spazio a delle differenziazioni in alcuni contesti. In linee generali, la maggior parte dei partecipanti ha riconosciuto i prestiti linguistici come importanti strumenti per espandere il proprio vocabolario in LS/L2 e le loro affermazioni ed opinioni possono solo servire da stimolo per approfondire questi aspetti in futuro e gettare le basi per scoprire i vantaggi che i prestiti linguistici possono fornire a studenti ed anche agli educatori del settore. Conclusioni Questa ricerca ha presentato i risultati e le scoperte di uno studio descrittivo e comparativo della distribuzione degli anglicismi in diverse lingue, dopo aver esaminato le tipologie, le frequenze dei token, il tasso di incidenza. Pertanto, questa analisi ha cercato di creare una mappa di come gli anglicismi generalmente si distribuiscono nelle diverse lingue ed ha delineato tendenze generali, cercando di scoprire quali siano i prestiti linguistici maggiormente usati nelle lingue dei nostri campioni. Per questo motivo, pensiamo che, data la loro presenza pervasiva nella vita degli studenti universitari, ci dovrebbe essere un’attenzione nell’ambito della didattica, portando ad includere gli anglicismi nei curricula di insegnamento della lingua inglese nelle università. Su questa idea, in futuro si potrebbero effettuare ricerche che diano prove concrete sulla connessione tra l'uso degli anglicismi da parte degli studenti e il loro potenziale nell'espansione del vocabolario in LS/L2, tenendo presente che i prestiti linguistici potrebbero fungere da leva durante questi processi di acquisizione linguistica. A tal proposito, lo studio di Sundqvist (2009:56) suggerisce proprio come questi prestiti possano avere un effetto propedeutico all'acquisizione del vocabolario inglese e tramite i suoi esperimenti ha cercato di dimostrare come l'esposizione esterna ad una lingua, definita “extramural English", offra opportunità importanti per assimilare input lessicali. Questo sottolinea come gli apprendenti, esposti di continuo ad anglicismi nella loro vita quotidiana, possano essere più predisposti all'apprendimento di questa lingua in contesti educativi e possano sentirsi anche più sicuri nel padroneggiare un certo repertorio linguistico utile anche ai fini della loro pratica linguistica in classe. Allo studio di Sundqvist (2009) se ne uniscono anche altri studi successivi come quelli di Larsson & MacLeod (2011) e Al-Zoubi (2018) che hanno enfatizzato quanto l'esposizione a una lingua venga considerata efficace quando lo studente può usare quella lingua ovunque e in qualsiasi momento. Concordiamo, dunque, anche con Bollen (2018:51, mia traduzione) il quale ha sottolineato quanto gli anglicismi possano essere "un mezzo per aumentare la fiducia nell'apprendimento del vocabolario inglese" e rappresentare "un'importante via di indagine che deve ancora essere pienamente sfruttata". Limiti e traiettorie di ricerca futura Sicuramente ci sono dei limiti in questa ricerca, come ad esempio il fatto che non è stato possibile condurre le sperimentazioni di tutti i casi studio in presenza dovute all’emergenza Covid-19. Uno studio futuro condotto in presenza e con un numero maggiore di partecipanti potrebbe aggiungere nuovi risultati a questo studio. Inoltre, ulteriori ricerche potrebbero ampliare il panorama dei contenuti legati agli anglicismi, come ad esempio includere nuovi modelli fonetici e fonologici, aree semantiche, classi di prestiti, caratteristiche morfologiche, formazioni e collocazioni delle parole, quindi lo scenario potrebbe estendersi in futuro. Ad esempio, per raccogliere nuovi dati, potrebbe anche essere produttivo esaminare dei nuovi termini provenienti da TV, social media, Internet o esplorare altre aree in cui si stanno diffondendo gli anglicismi. Anche l'aggiunta di ulteriori lingue con altro materiale di comparazione potrebbe contribuire alla comprensione ancor più estesa della tipologia dei prestiti linguistici nelle varie lingue, nonché fare da supporto ed estensione ai risultati di questo progetto di ricerca. Un altro suggerimento potrebbe essere la possibilità di sfruttare prestiti inglesi anche nell'ambito dell’insegnamento, che è un argomento che necessita di ulteriori indagini e approfondimenti, su cui è stato scritto ancora poco. Il presente studio ha fornito una panoramica sul fenomeno degli anglicismi, coinvolgendo un certo numero di giovani studenti, ma non può ancora essere completamente generalizzato, in quanto ulteriori studi dovrebbero coinvolgere popolazioni più ampie di campioni che possano confermare e convalidare i nostri dati ed ottenere un quadro più completo degli anglicismi nella lingua dei giovani di diverse nazionalità. Un'altra espansione di questo studio potrebbe essere quella di realizzare un'indagine sulle opinioni e sugli atteggiamenti degli adulti nei confronti degli anglicismi nelle proprie lingue, che potrebbero essere confrontati con le opinioni e gli atteggiamenti rilevati nella nostra popolazione dei giovani. Ciò consentirebbe alla ricerca di scoprire quali persone hanno maggiori probabilità di utilizzare gli anglicismi e per quali motivazioni, utilizzando ad esempio altri criteri di selezione come età, sesso, stato sociale. In questa ricerca, si è cercato di indagare l'influenza lessicale dell'inglese sulle lingue scelte e di dimostrare l'uso di prestiti linguistici inglesi attraverso modelli di lingua scritta, ma future ricerche, potrebbero concentrarsi anche sulla lingua parlata per fornire un quadro più completo. Visto l’uso frequente che i giovani fanno degli anglicismi, una linea d’indagine futura potrebbe essere quella di capire se gli anglicismi favoriscono una certa familiarità con l'inglese, così producendo un’espansione del vocabolario nella L2. Dopo l’osservazione degli esperimenti, abbiamo capito che i prestiti linguistici potrebbero essere una risorsa per gli studenti di lingua inglese come lingua seconda o straniera, poiché l’uso costante degli anglicismi nel quotidiano consente di fare acquisire familiarità con l’inglese e così poter espandere il lessico della L2/LS di studio (Cohen et al., 2007). Nella fase delle interviste la maggior parte degli studenti ha testimoniato che esiste una relazione positiva tra esposizione agli anglicismi ed acquisizione del lessico inglese (Larsson & MacLeod, 2011). La maggior parte del campione asseriva che avendo acquisito un buon numero di anglicismi, proveniente anche da vari settori della vita, si sentiva più sicuro di padroneggiare il lessico inglese. Questi assunti lasciano spazio al fatto che gli anglicismi, favorendo l’espansione del vocabolario inglese, potrebbero essere utilizzati in ambito didattico con le appropriate tecniche e strategie, che non si sono potute applicare in questo studio. Ma in futuro, riteniamo utile verificare ulteriormente con altri esperimenti e pratiche in classe quanto l’esposizione continua agli input esterni (anglicismi rintracciati in vari ambiti) possa avere un impatto positivo e duraturo sull’espansione lessicale della LS/L2, che così da acquisizione spontanea, in questo modo, può in seguito diventare apprendimento sistematizzato tramite successivi interventi formali nell’ambito dell’insegnamento della lingua inglese (Hung, 2012).
Anglicismi tra le varie lingue: uno studio descrittivo e comparativo
Stilo, Serena
2021
Abstract
Introduction Assuming that modern societies today are strongly influenced by globalization, which has led to various innovations in all spheres of life and, above all, to increased contact between English and other languages, it is probably fair to say that this process of internationalization has affected not only lifestyles and cultures, but also languages. There is much talk about the spread of English as a global language, which has changed the way we communicate and interact with each other through all media, technologies and the Internet, and has left relevant traces in languages (Crystal, 2001). This study was conducted to witness this predominant influence of English on other languages through the so-called Anglicisms, which are generally defined as "any individual or systemic linguistic feature adapted or adopted from English or inspired or reinforced by English models and used in intralingual communication in a language other than English " (Gottlieb, 2005:20). An attempt was therefore made to identify common large-scale patterns of these linguistic loanwords between languages, to examine the main areas in which these items are used extensively, and to outline the frequency, main reasons for use and participants' attitudes towards Anglicisms. This research specifically addressed five cross-case studies that related to different nationalities (Croatian, Hispanic-American, Italian, Spanish and Turkish). As each case involved a number of students of different languages, it was possible to sketch a wide-ranging analysis of features and processes associated with the phenomenon of Anglicisms. Each case represented an attempt to understand the diverse attitudes and habits of students in relation to Anglicisms, thus representing a part of a larger mosaic. As for the outline of the paper, the main sections are presented as follows. First, we have examined the literature of the main studies on the topic that form the background of this paper, then we have outlined a historical framework of the contacts between English and the selected languages and presented a picture of the role of English in the respective countries. Subsequently, we have also briefly pointed out the difference between English as a foreign language (hereafter EFL), which is considered a non-native language learned in one's own country (Balboni, 2008) and as a second language (hereafter ESL), which is considered a non-native language learned in the country of origin of native speakers (ibidem). Secondly, we have discussed the basic characteristics of loanwords or borrowings, calques and hybrids presented, according to the classifications and definitions in the works of Pulcini & Furiassi (2012), Pulcini, Furiassi & Rodríguez González (2012), Winter-Froemel & Onysko ( 2012), Furiassi & Gottlieb (2015), so that we later provided a brief linguistic scenario of the countries, selected as contexts for our case studies, paying attention to the stages of the diffusion of English loanwords in the target languages, selected for this research and drawing an overall picture of the uptake of Anglicisms with their main features. Thirdly, we presented the methodology and the research hypotheses and then, we described the experimental process, which was carried out using three methodological instruments: questionnaires, translation tasks and interviews, which helped us to investigate the extent and consequences of the influence of English loanwords in the selected languages. Finally, we analyzed and discussed the data obtained and made a comparison between the different case studies. Objectives and research questions This research project, which has as its objective the comparative study between different languages and Anglicisms as an object of observation and investigation, has taken into consideration the socio-linguistic and cultural variables of students from different countries. This study, therefore, combines theoretical research on the presence of Anglicisms in several languages with practical experiments that revealed frequency, usage and types of the borrowings in question. Therefore, by outlining a broad scenario about the use of Anglicisms in some languages, this study also aimed to shed light on students' attitudes towards them and to understand whether learners have familiarity with these lexical items. The study tried to answer the following research questions: 1. To what extent do Anglicisms influence EFL/ESL students’ language? 2. What are the main areas of exposure to Anglicisms for young adults? 3. How, why and where do university students use Anglicisms in their native language? To answer the first question, the results provided rich data on the influence of English borrowings on young adults' language, highlighting students' attitudes towards the borrowings under study and revealing the extent of their use. The findings from the experiments showed quite a high proportion of Anglicisms in the linguistic repertoire of all groups and hence, these data allowed us to understand that most of these borrowings now occupy a robust niche in the language of young adults in all the contexts studied. This reveals the popularity of Anglicisms among youngsters and their occurrence as part of the lexical system of several languages. As for the second research question, the study then focused on some everyday contexts of the young adults and tried to identify the areas where the use of Anglicisms is particularly relevant. In this regard, a notable point is that the results showed that the overwhelming number of Anglicisms are found in domains such as ICT, Social media and the Internet, where the percentage of Anglicisms seems to be highest for the most part, as these are the areas where people are most likely to come into contact with English according to our participants. We found that many students of different nationalities generally absorb a large number of lexical loanwords outside the learning environment, especially in the above-mentioned areas. The third research question related to how, why, and where students use Anglicisms in their native language, and thus, through the survey instruments, we learned the attitudes of our selected young people. In terms of how students use Anglicisms, i.e. what kind of Anglicisms they use, we can say that we learned from the analysis that the repertoire is diverse as it contains both lexical hybrids and pure forms and both seem to be well integrated into their language. Thus, as far as the type of Anglicisms is concerned, students made different lexical choices based on the usage imposed on them by their mother tongue. As for the reasons to use Anglicisms, the students indicated that the main motivations were related to: personal desire to expand vocabulary; considering some Anglicisms as an integral part of modern youth language; feeling of modernity and trend; cultural prestige; useful structural features such as brevity, phonic effect, flexibility in word formation; lack of native-language equivalents. All these reasons helped to understand that young adults generally accept positively the fact that many Anglicisms have become fully integrated into their native language and see no harm in the ever-increasing number of these borrowings in everyday conversations or even in written language. About where students use these lexical items the most, the results revealed that the percentages varied in terms of semantic domains and showed a close relationship with the young people's areas of interest, such as information and communication technologies (hereafter ICT), social media, the Internet, music and friends. Limitations of existing literature We mention some representative studies that show a picture on the diffusion of Anglicisms in the languages, such as those of: Pulcini (2017) which explored multiple phenomena related to Anglicisms in the contemporary Italian language; Furiassi (2006) who focused in particular on the category of false Anglicisms in Italian; Perić and Škifić (2015), who emphasized necessary and not borrowing in Croatian; Rodríguez-González (2013), who made a classification of adapted and unadapted Anglicisms in comparison to the morphological system of Spanish; while Echeverría and González-Fernández who traced various forms of linguistic borrowings from English found in the Spanish-American language; DoğançayAktuna and Kiziltepe (2005) which testified how the dissemination of this latest generation lexicon is largely conveyed by the mass media in the Turkish language. Moreover, other studies conducted research on the spread of Anglicisms among several languages, such as: Görlach (2002 b) who described common phenomena of Anglicisms in European languages; Pulcini, Furiassi and Rodríguez González (2012) who outlined a picture of the presence of Anglicisms in some European languages (Armenian, Danish, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Polish, Serbian, Spanish and Swedish); Fischer and Pulaczewska (2009), that illustrated common aspects in the use of Anglicisms in some European languages, focusing in particular on German and Polish; by Vázquez, Lario-de-Oñate and López (2015) who carried out a comparison of the use of Anglicisms in the Argentine, Mexican and Spanish press. Certainly, the mentioned studies have provided interesting insights within the field of Anglicisms and their diffusion, but they did not offer specific contributions about how these loanwords work in the youth language, performing a comparison among several languages. Unfortunately, they did not offer many and specific examples of experiments with young population. To those mentioned studies, we refer to others that, while strongly emphasizing that loanwords can expand the lexical knowledge of young ESL/EFL students, as for example the research of Shaffer (2008), Daulton (2008), Bollen (2008), Inagawa (2014) and Otwinowska (2016) which have provided interesting insights into the topic. In particular, we can fully share Shaffer's (2014) hypothesis about the broad pedagogical potential of Anglicisms, that international words borrowed from English: help students expand their vocabulary; draw attention to specific lexical units used in specific contexts; strengthen their communication skills; promote their adaptation to new concepts; develop their linguistic intuition and metalinguistic competence; improve their communication skills; make the understanding of the lexicon more accessible in areas such as the Internet and social media, but practical application in the field of all these principles would be needed, which can be translated into concrete ELT techniques. Therefore, all of the above provide excellent pedagogical suggestions that serve as a starting point for developing strategies that can be applied in real classroom contexts. In this case, the field should indeed be widened and interventions should be put into practice that can show how and to what extent Anglicisms can lead to a real expansion of the English lexicon and how they can serve as levers to enhance ESL/EFL learning. Methodology The above mentioned instruments complemented each other and they provided a key opportunity to explore the phenomenon in depth, to learn about the trends of the participants and to outline a framework as complete as possible. Each of the instruments had its important function of adding meaningful details to enrich the overall picture. The method attempted to be reliable by replicating the same survey items in the different groups and moreover, in order to ensure the validity, both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection were used. As Angouri (2010:33) stated, “while quantitative research is useful towards a generalization of research findings, qualitative approaches are particularly valuable in providing indepth and rich data” and “mixed-methods designs arguably contribute to a better understanding of the various phenomena under investigation”. Indeed, quantitative analysis was used to determine the percentage of occurrence of Anglicisms; while qualitative analysis was applied to describe the attitudes and motivations of the participants. The first experimental phase involved the administration of a questionnaire, which in turn was divided into three macroblocks: the first part contained sociodemographic questions; the second examined the learners’ linguistic repertoire; the third investigated their use of English in different interactional contexts (family, friends, study) and which examined the learners' attitudes towards a sectoral category of Anglicisms. The second phase included translation tasks, where we were able to observe which words the learners retained or translated from EFL/ESL to L1. Therefore, we can say that this kind of test has had a high effectiveness from the point of view of our study, because the lexical transfer from EFL/ESL to L1 allows a contrastive analysis and this continuous comparison between the two languages leads students to gain some familiarity with this lexical repertoire and over time and with practice, they become more confident in their ESL/EFL lexical competence (Bollen, 2018: 187). The analyzed phenomena highlighted the fact that students often performed a positive transfer from English to their native language during translation tasks, by having kept Anglicisms in the L1 texts. This phenomenon supports our idea that a pre-existing knowledge of student loanwords can lead to the confidence towards a repertoire of Anglicisms and that this fact can help to consolidate and improve lexical competence in LS or L2. In the final phase, students were subjected to short individual interviews designed to explore aspects that emerged from the questionnaire and the choice of translation. In general terms, the interviews had a metacognitive function, as they made the students reflect on the presence of Anglicisms in their everyday life, in order to get an idea of the extent to which they were embedded in their lives, showing a common linguistic repertoire among groups students (Smit, 2010). In fact, throughout the interviews, student declared that Anglicisms can be an important resource for ESL/EFL. The testing set enabled us to investigate the patterns of loanwords in a sample of university students of different L1 and an age group between 19 and 25 years. A total of 115 participants were recruited for this study (15 from Croatia, 31 from Italy, 32 from Spain, 16 from Turkey and 21 from Latin America), belonging to the following institutional contexts: University of Zagreb (Croatia); University for Foreigners “Dante Alighieri” (Italy); University of Valladolid (Spain); Munzur University (Turkey); JMU University (USA). The samples had similar overall characteristics: All had previously attended compulsory English courses at school, they were also attending English courses at university at the time of the interview, and they also had a common pre-intermediate level in English, ranging from level A2 to level B1, according to the European Reference Framework for languages (CEFR). The status of English differed among the groups, as it was taught as a foreign language for the Croats, Italians, Spaniards and Turks, while it was considered a second language for the Hispanic-Americans (through the International Center of the American University). In order to narrow down the search, we opted for the limited category of 80 entries chosen among the frequency or handy Anglicisms (Núñez Nogueroles, 2018), namely student-friendly loanwords related to three familiar domains: a) ICTs, Social media and the Internet; b) Recreational activities (hobbies, entertainment, leisure); c) Daily life (routine matters, food&drinks, habits and feelings). These domains of frequency Anglicisms “may be a fertile ground for scaffolding as they may provide a starting point for learners who lack effective learning strategies and possess an intermediate SL competence” (Rodríguez-González, 2013: 295). The analyzed phenomena shed light on the fact that learners often made a positive transfer from English to their native language when they chose to retain Anglicisms in translations, so the extent of learners' pre-existing knowledge of loan words could enhance ESL/EFL lexical competence. Results The surveys made it possible to perceive students' linguistic attitudes and to identify general trends through targeted measures. From the collections of data from the questionnaires used in the different contexts, it appears that most learners already had an important lexical background consisting of these frequent Anglicisms in their L1. As Simons (2009:117) pointed out “data sets that can be categorized, ordered and examined for connections, patterns and propositions that seek to explain the data” and to this end, through our process of data analysis, common items (responses, statements, expressed perceptions or thoughts) of the participants were coded and documented for frequency determination. Thus, this analysis showed how Anglicisms generally map into our different languages and which are the English-based loanwords commonly used in our sample’s language. At the end of the experiments, we carried out a cross-case analysis that focused on the key similarities and differences of the five cases in terms of incorporating English loanwords in languages. In order to provide a detailed framework for a comparative approach and a broad cross-cultural perspective, we used the analysis of the five case-studies to derive some insights into the attitudes towards English loanwords in our case studies and to understand the process and degree of integration of loanwords in such languages. Several marked observations emerged from the data comparison such as significant difference in the percentage of loanwords between different semantic domains and different mechanisms in the Anglicisms uptake (e.g. adaptations and semi-adaptations, calques and hybrids; adoption of pure forms; gender assignments and plural markers). Furthermore, by comparing the results in the five contexts, it was interesting to note different mechanisms of adoption of Anglicisms, since many forms have been adapted to the morphological system of our students’ languages and above all, the English verbs have been conjugated with the affixes of the L1 system, while other loanwords have been kept in the English proper form, called pure Anglicisms (Pulcini & Furiassi, 2012). It was very engaging to discover also common trends with regard to a similar frequency of use of Anglicisms in certain areas among the case studies. For easy comparison of the results, graphs and tables with percentages and numerical data were used. It must be emphasized that the quantities and data sets were different, as the number of members of the individual samples differed from each other. Therefore, a direct comparison was not possible, so we worked with percentage and proportion calculations to normalize the data. Results reflected a realistic picture of the presence of English loanwords in the language of our selected young adults and this suggests that most of these items consistently occupied a robust niche in the language of young adults of all five contexts under consideration. Contributions to existing literature We hope that this current study about the impact of Anglicisms on languages has contributed to open up new perspectives and insights in the field. There have been many recent studies on the spread of Anglicisms in various languages of the world, but few but few researchers have carried out a comparative study in the languages of young people shedding light on the use, frequency and typology of Anglicisms employed. By mentioning some similar studies in the existing literature, we tried to provide an heterogenous picture of Anglicisms, and our study can be a small contribution to this existing literature, adding a small piece to the large mosaic of investigation concerning the global spread of loanwords in the contemporary youth language. Thanks to the experiments carried out in this study, we have observed how the phenomenon of Anglicisms presents similar facets in some cases, but also offers room for differentiation in some contexts. Generally speaking, most of the participants acknowledged loanwords as important tools for expanding their ESL/EFL vocabulary and their statements and opinions can only serve as a stimulus to delve into these aspects in the future and lay the groundwork for discovering the advantages that loanwords might provide to students and also to educators in the sector. Conclusions This research presented the results and findings of a descriptive and comparative study on the distribution of Anglicisms in different languages, after examining the types, token frequencies, the incidence rate. Therefore, this analysis has tried to create a map of how Anglicisms are generally distributed in the different L1s and has tried to delineate general trends, by finding out which are the most widely used loanwords in the languages of our participants. For this reason, we think that, given their pervasive presence in the lives of university students, Anglicisms could be included in the ELT curricula in universities. On this idea, further research could be carried out in the future that would give concrete evidence on the connection between students' use of Anglicisms and their potential in the expansion of ESL/EFL vocabulary, by embedding loanwords in ELT processes. In this regard, Sundqvist's study (2009: 56) suggested just how these loanwords can have a preparatory effect on English vocabulary learning and through his experiments, he tried to demonstrate how external exposure to a language, defined as "extramural English", offers important opportunities to assimilate lexical inputs. This underlines how learners, continuously exposed to Anglicisms in their daily lives, can be more predisposed towards this language learning in educational settings and can feel confident in mastering a certain linguistic repertoire useful when dealing with this lexicon in their ELT classes. Sundqvist (2009)’s study is also supported by other subsequent studies such as those by Al-Larsson & MacLeod (2011) and Al-Zoubi (2018) which emphasized how exposure to a language is considered effective when the student can use that language anywhere and at any moment. We, therefore, agree with Bollen (2018: 51) who underlined Anglicisms can be "a means to increase confidence in learning the English vocabulary" and support "an important way of an investigation that must still be fully exploited". Limitations and directions for future research There are certainly limits to this research, like for example the fact that it was not possible to conduct the tests of all the case studies in the presence due to the Covid19 emergency. A future study conducted in the presence and with a larger number of participants could add new results to this study. In addition, further research could broaden the framework of Anglicisms-based contents, such as including new semantic areas, loan classes, semantic and formal features, phonetic and phonological patterns, word formations and collocations, so the scenario may extend in the future. For example, in order to gather new data, it might also be productive to examine new terms for example, from TV, social media, the Internet, or explore other areas where Anglicisms are spreading. The inclusion of additional languages with other comparative material could also contribute to an even broader understanding of the typology of loanwords in the various languages, as well as support and extend the results of this research project. Another future project plan to exploit English loanword in the field of teaching, which is a subject that needs further investigation and insights, on which it has yet to be written. The present study has provided an overview of the phenomenon of Anglicisms, by involving a number of young students, but it cannot yet be fully generalized, as further studies should involve larger populations of samples that can confirm and validate our data and get a more complete picture of Anglicisms in the language of young people of different nationalities. Another expansion of this study could be to carry out a survey on the opinions and attitudes of adults towards Anglicisms in their own L1s, which could be compared with the opinions and attitudes found in our youth population. This would allow researchers to find out which people are most likely to use Anglicisms and for what reasons, using for example other selection criteria such as age, gender, social status. In this research, an attempt was made to investigate the lexical influence of English on the chosen languages and to demonstrate the use of English loanwords through written language models, but future research may also focus on the spoken language to provide a more complete picture. Given the frequent use that young people make of Anglicisms, a future line of investigation could be to understand if Anglicisms favor a certain familiarity with English, thus producing an expansion of the vocabulary in L2. After the observations in experiments, we learned that loanwords could be a resource for ESL/EFL students, as the constant use of Anglicisms in everyday life enables them to become familiar with English in order to be able to expand ESL/EFL vocabulary (Cohen et al., 2007). In the interview stage, most of the students stated that there was a positive relationship between exposure to Anglicisms and the learning of English vocabulary (Larsson & MacLeod, 2011). In fact, most asserted that having acquired a good number of Anglicisms, also coming from various sectors of life, they felt more confident in mastering the English vocabulary. So, these assumptions give room for the fact that Anglicisms, by encourage the expansion of the English vocabulary, could also be used in the process in English Language Teaching (hereinafter ELT) with proper techniques and strategies, which could not be applied in this study. In the future, it could be verified with further experiments and in class-practices how the continuous exposure to external inputs (Anglicisms to be traced in various fields) can have a positive and lasting impact on the ESL/EFL lexical expansion, which thus by spontaneous acquisition can later become systematized learning through subsequent formal ELT interventions (Hung, 2012).File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/187821
URN:NBN:IT:UNISTRADA-187821