The current epoch is unique in the history of planet Earth, for one single species, Homo sapiens, is changing profoundly and rapidly the habitats of all other living beings. In the Anthropocene, the impoverishment of the biosphere with loss of individuals and populations of non-human animals is not sparing wild mammals, whose biomass has decreased 85% compared to pre-human times. Mammals are crucial species within ecosystems, providing numerous ecological functions like vegetation structure modification, predation and prey regulation, trophic cascades, seed dispersal and the facilitation of tree establishment, scavenging and carcass removal, increase in soil complexity through burrowing, spatial niche creation, and nutrient cycling. Yet, about one quarter of the 6,500 species of mammals are currently under threat of extinction. Habitat destruction is recognized as the major driver of mammalian decline worldwide, with infrastructure networks then fragmenting and isolating the remaining habitats. Overharvesting, poaching, and wildlife trading are other important impacts on mammalian communities, especially in the southern hemisphere. Beyond these well-known impacts, new emergent threats to wildlife communities are recently rising: particular concern is roused by competition with domesticated animals and human disturbance from outdoor recreational activities, both of which are among the most reported threats in protected areas (PAs) of the northern hemisphere. These two emerging threats on mammalian communities are the two main topics of this thesis, addressed respectively in part 1 and 2. In both cases I tested ecological hypotheses by utilising systematic camera-trapping as sampling technique, a non-invasive method that allows the collection of large amounts of data on multiple species over large areas at relatively low cost. I coupled this technique with a range of analytical approaches, primarily hierarchical modelling, that allowed me to estimate important community metrics, such as spatial co-occurrence between species and multi-year trends in occurrence while accounting for the pervasive issue of imperfect detection. Furthermore, through generalised linear models I assessed the behavioural responses of species and communities to anthropogenic pressures. In Part1, chapter 1 and 2, I explored the spatio-temporal relationships between wild and domesticated mammals in four Central Asian grasslands located in the Altai mountains of western Mongolia, reconstructing potential interspecific interactions under livestock encroachment into PAs. Demand for animal products is growing globally, and also in Central Asia livestock numbers have strongly increased after the fall of the Soviet Union and the globalisation of the Cashmere wool market. Domestic herbivores have consequently become several orders of magnitude more abundant than wild ones, with indirect repercussions also on carnivores. I used two different analytical approaches to uncover the network of potential relationships that bind mammals of these communities, explicitly including the widespread presence of livestock. In part 2, chapter 3 and 4, I assessed the behavioural responses of mammalian communities in Italian mountainous PAs to the increasing trend of outdoor recreation in natural habitats. As typical in recent European environmental history, Italy has seen a natural re-expansion of forests following socio-economic changes, that coupled with legal protection and lowered persecution has allowed the re-establishment of previously rare or locally extinct medium and large mammals. Yet, the increasingly urbanised population is engaging in sports and recreational activities within natural areas, with potential disturbance on the wildlife inhabiting them, underscoring the need of monitoring the responses of animals to this human frequentation. In particular, in chapter 3 I took advantage of a long-term dataset collected with my contribution in and around an Alpine PA of western Trentino, north-eastern Italy, to estimate temporal trends in occurrence of 8 mammalian species and their spatio-temporal use of habitat under intense outdoor recreation and tourist activity. I then broadened the spatial scale of analysis in chapter 4 by targeting four PAs of the European Natura 2000 Network, and studied responses of wildlife site use to human presence in three different temporal slots, diurnal, crepuscular and nocturnal, for four mammalian communities with different species compositions.
L’epoca in cui viviamo è unica nella storia del pianeta Terra, poiché una sola specie, l’Homo sapiens, sta cambiando profondamente e rapidamente gli habitat di tutti gli altri esseri viventi. Nell’Antropocene, l’impoverimento della biosfera con la perdita di individui e popolazioni di animali non umani non risparmia i mammiferi selvatici, la cui biomassa è diminuita dell’85% rispetto all’epoca preumana. I mammiferi sono specie cruciali all’interno degli ecosistemi, dato che svolgono numerose funzioni ecologiche come la modifica della struttura della vegetazione, la predazione e la regolazione dell’abbondanza delle prede, le cascate trofiche, la dispersione dei semi e la facilitazione dell’insediamento degli alberi, la rimozione delle carcasse, l’aumento della complessità del suolo attraverso l’attività di scavo, la creazione di nicchie spaziali e il ciclo dei nutrienti. Tuttavia, circa un quarto delle 6.500 specie di mammiferi è attualmente a rischio di estinzione. La distruzione dell’habitat è riconosciuta come il principale fattore di declino dei mammiferi in tutto il mondo, con l’espansione urbana come primario cambiamento di uso del suolo a livello globale e la deforestazione che è concentrata soprattutto nelle aree tropicali. Una rete di infrastrutture sempre più fitta poi frammenta e isola gli habitat rimanenti, impedendo il movimento degli animali e il flusso genico. La caccia eccessiva, il bracconaggio e il commercio di animali selvatici sono altri impatti importanti sulle comunità di mammiferi, soprattutto nell’emisfero meridionale. Oltre a ciò, di recente stanno emergendo nuove minacce per le comunità di animali selvatici all’interno delle aree naturali e protette: particolare preoccupazione suscitano la competizione con gli animali domestici e il disturbo umano derivante dalle attività ricreative all’aperto, entrambe tra le minacce più segnalate nelle aree protette (AP) dell’emisfero settentrionale. Queste due pressioni emergenti sulle comunità di mammiferi sono i due argomenti principali di questa tesi, che affronto rispettivamente nella parte 1 e 2. In entrambi i casi ho testato le mie ipotesi ecologiche attraverso la tecnica del foto-trappolaggio sistematico, un metodo non invasivo che permette di raccogliere una grande quantità di dati su più specie in aree estese e a costi relativamente bassi. Nella Parte 1, capitoli 1 e 2, ho esplorato le relazioni spazio-temporali tra mammiferi selvatici e domestici in quattro praterie dell’Asia centrale situate nei monti Altai della Mongolia occidentale, ricostruendo le potenziali interazioni interspecifiche in un contesto di sistematica intrusione del bestiame nelle AP. Il consumo di prodotti di origine animale è in crescita a livello globale, ed anche in Asia centrale il numero di capi di bestiame è fortemente aumentato a seguito della caduta dell’Unione Sovietica e la globalizzazione del mercato della lana di cashmere. Di conseguenza, gli erbivori domestici sono diventati di diversi ordini di grandezza più abbondanti di quelli selvatici, con ricadute indirette anche sui carnivori. Ho utilizzato due diversi approcci analitici per ricostruire la complessa rete di potenziali relazioni che collegano i mammiferi di queste comunità, includendo esplicitamente la presenza diffusa del bestiame. Nella seconda parte, capitoli 3 e 4, ho valutato le risposte comportamentali delle comunità di mammiferi nelle AP montane italiane all’aumento delle attività ricreative negli habitat naturali. Seguendo una dinamica tipica della recente storia ambientale europea, l’Italia ha assistito a una naturale ri-espansione delle foreste in seguito a cambiamenti socioeconomici, che, unitamente alla protezione legale e alla diminuzione della persecuzione, ha permesso il ristabilimento di mammiferi precedentemente rari o estinti. Tuttavia, la popolazione sempre più urbanizzata è alla ricerca di opportunità per praticare attività sportive e ricreative all’interno delle aree naturali, con un potenziale disturbo per la fauna selvatica che le abita. Per questi motivi è particolarmente importante studiare e monitorare nel tempo le risposte dei mammiferi a questa crescente frequentazione umana dei loro habitat. In particolare, nel capitolo 3 ho sfruttato una serie di dati a lungo termine che ho contribuito a raccogliere in un’area alpina del Trentino occidentale, nel nord-est dell’Italia, per stimare le tendenze temporali di presenza di 8 specie di mammiferi e il loro uso spazio-temporale dell’habitat in condizioni di intensa attività ricreativa e turistica. Nel capitolo 4 ho poi ampliato la scala spaziale dell’analisi, includendo altre tre AP della Rete Natura 2000 europea, e ho studiato le risposte nell’uso dei siti da parte della fauna selvatica alla presenza umana in tre diverse fasce temporali, diurna, crepuscolare e notturna, per quattro comunità di mammiferi con diverse composizioni di specie.
Mammal communities in the Anthropocene: systematic camera-trapping to study wildlife responses to anthropogenic pressures
Marco, Salvatori;
2023
Abstract
The current epoch is unique in the history of planet Earth, for one single species, Homo sapiens, is changing profoundly and rapidly the habitats of all other living beings. In the Anthropocene, the impoverishment of the biosphere with loss of individuals and populations of non-human animals is not sparing wild mammals, whose biomass has decreased 85% compared to pre-human times. Mammals are crucial species within ecosystems, providing numerous ecological functions like vegetation structure modification, predation and prey regulation, trophic cascades, seed dispersal and the facilitation of tree establishment, scavenging and carcass removal, increase in soil complexity through burrowing, spatial niche creation, and nutrient cycling. Yet, about one quarter of the 6,500 species of mammals are currently under threat of extinction. Habitat destruction is recognized as the major driver of mammalian decline worldwide, with infrastructure networks then fragmenting and isolating the remaining habitats. Overharvesting, poaching, and wildlife trading are other important impacts on mammalian communities, especially in the southern hemisphere. Beyond these well-known impacts, new emergent threats to wildlife communities are recently rising: particular concern is roused by competition with domesticated animals and human disturbance from outdoor recreational activities, both of which are among the most reported threats in protected areas (PAs) of the northern hemisphere. These two emerging threats on mammalian communities are the two main topics of this thesis, addressed respectively in part 1 and 2. In both cases I tested ecological hypotheses by utilising systematic camera-trapping as sampling technique, a non-invasive method that allows the collection of large amounts of data on multiple species over large areas at relatively low cost. I coupled this technique with a range of analytical approaches, primarily hierarchical modelling, that allowed me to estimate important community metrics, such as spatial co-occurrence between species and multi-year trends in occurrence while accounting for the pervasive issue of imperfect detection. Furthermore, through generalised linear models I assessed the behavioural responses of species and communities to anthropogenic pressures. In Part1, chapter 1 and 2, I explored the spatio-temporal relationships between wild and domesticated mammals in four Central Asian grasslands located in the Altai mountains of western Mongolia, reconstructing potential interspecific interactions under livestock encroachment into PAs. Demand for animal products is growing globally, and also in Central Asia livestock numbers have strongly increased after the fall of the Soviet Union and the globalisation of the Cashmere wool market. Domestic herbivores have consequently become several orders of magnitude more abundant than wild ones, with indirect repercussions also on carnivores. I used two different analytical approaches to uncover the network of potential relationships that bind mammals of these communities, explicitly including the widespread presence of livestock. In part 2, chapter 3 and 4, I assessed the behavioural responses of mammalian communities in Italian mountainous PAs to the increasing trend of outdoor recreation in natural habitats. As typical in recent European environmental history, Italy has seen a natural re-expansion of forests following socio-economic changes, that coupled with legal protection and lowered persecution has allowed the re-establishment of previously rare or locally extinct medium and large mammals. Yet, the increasingly urbanised population is engaging in sports and recreational activities within natural areas, with potential disturbance on the wildlife inhabiting them, underscoring the need of monitoring the responses of animals to this human frequentation. In particular, in chapter 3 I took advantage of a long-term dataset collected with my contribution in and around an Alpine PA of western Trentino, north-eastern Italy, to estimate temporal trends in occurrence of 8 mammalian species and their spatio-temporal use of habitat under intense outdoor recreation and tourist activity. I then broadened the spatial scale of analysis in chapter 4 by targeting four PAs of the European Natura 2000 Network, and studied responses of wildlife site use to human presence in three different temporal slots, diurnal, crepuscular and nocturnal, for four mammalian communities with different species compositions.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/193526
URN:NBN:IT:UNIPR-193526