Although the positive effects of exercise on health and disease management are well-known (Piercy et al., 2018), the precise molecular mechanisms underlying these benefits remain poorly understood and are actively being explored. Growing evidence suggests that many metabolic, physiologic and immunological changes triggered by exercise may be attributed to the release humoral factors, known as exerkines, which can influence metabolism and function in organs, either directly or indirectly (Pedersen, 2013; Polito et al., 2020; Scherer, 2006). Indeed, exerkines, by facilitating communication between peripheral and distant organs, play a crucial role in mediating the beneficial effects of exercise on human health through their signalling pathways (Safdar et al., 2016). Moreover, emerging evidence suggests that some exerkines exert direct or indirect effects on the brain (Pedersen, 2019) provides a conceptual groundwork for recommending physical exercise as a therapeutic strategy for various disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases. To date several studies aimed at understanding the release of exerkines and their pleiotropic effects. However, significant knowledge gaps persist, necessitating further investigation. The first research has investigated how physical exercise modulates the release of irisin and adiponectin and has assessed their impact on BDNF secretion, cognitive performance, and the production of β-endorphin, a molecule associated with well-being. Serum levels of irisin, adiponectin, BDNF, and β-endorphin were measured in young and middle-aged male adults before and 15 minutes and 24 hours after an incremental cycling exercise test to exhaustion. The results provide novel evidence that acute exercise enhances irisin and adiponectin concentrations immediately after exercise, with the highest levels of irisin, adiponectin, and BDNF observed 24 hours post-exercise. Instead, exercise-induced β-endorphin secretion is transient, peaking immediately after exercise. Additionally, comparisons between age groups revealed significant differences in exerkines concentrations and their exercise-induced secretion. Notably, improvements in memory and creativity test performances were recorded 24 hours after exercise and in middle-aged adults some correlations were found between exerkines and certain memory and creativity scores. These findings suggest that BDNF and irisin might act as molecular mediators of the positive effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance. Even though, irisin was discovered only a decade ago, research on this myokine has exponentially grown due to its pivotal role in human health. Indeed, irisin is now recognized as one of the primary mediators of the beneficial effects of physical exercise on health (Maak et al., 2021). This underscores the importance of alternative stimuli to exercise or complementary approaches that could further enhance irisin release. Remarkably, no studies have yet evaluated functional electrical stimulation as a stimulus for irisin secretion in humans. Therefore, the second research aimed to investigate whether the application of Adaptive Functional Electrical Stimulation Kinesitherapy (AFESK™) during cycling could enhance irisin secretion and to evaluate potential adaptations in irisin concentrations following a six-week exercise intervention, with and without AFESK. To address this, the acute irisin response to cycling with and without AFESK was evaluated at both the beginning and end of the training period in healthy individuals. The study also explored potential adaptive effects induced by the training period and examined the combined effects of AFESK and physical exercise on risk-taking behaviour. The findings revealed that cycling with AFESK resulted in a greater release of irisin one day post-exercise compared to traditional cycling. However, the research also showed that physical exercise sessions, irrespective of the intervention type, did not significantly impact risk-taking behaviour. These results highlight the potential of AFESK to enhance the physiological benefits of exercise while emphasizing the need for further research on its broader implications.
Sebbene gli effetti positivi dell'esercizio fisico sulla salute e nella gestione delle malattie siano ben noti (Piercy et al., 2018), i meccanismi molecolari precisi alla base di tali benefici restano poco compresi e sono tuttora oggetto di studio. Un numero crescente di evidenze suggerisce che molti cambiamenti metabolici, fisiologici e immunologici indotti dall’esercizio possano essere attribuiti al rilascio di fattori umorali, noti come exerkine, che possono influenzare il metabolismo e la funzione degli organi, sia direttamente che indirettamente (Pedersen, 2013; Polito et al., 2020; Scherer, 2006). Le exerkine, infatti, facilitando la comunicazione tra organi periferici e distanti, svolgono un ruolo cruciale nel mediare gli effetti benefici dell’attività fisica sulla salute umana attraverso i loro meccanismi di segnalazione (Safdar et al., 2016). Inoltre, evidenze emergenti indicano che alcune exerkine esercitano effetti diretti o indiretti sul cervello (Pedersen, 2019), fornendo una base concettuale per raccomandare l’esercizio fisico come strategia terapeutica per vari disturbi, incluse le malattie neurodegenerative. Ad oggi, diversi studi si sono concentrati sulla comprensione del rilascio delle exerkine e dei loro effetti pleiotropici. Tuttavia, persistono importanti lacune nella conoscenza, che richiedono ulteriori approfondimenti. Il primo studio ha indagato in che modo l'esercizio fisico moduli il rilascio di irisina e adiponectina, valutando il loro impatto sulla secrezione di BDNF, sulla performance cognitiva e sulla produzione di β-endorfina, una molecola associata al benessere. I livelli sierici di irisina, adiponectina, BDNF e β-endorfina sono stati misurati in giovani e adulti di mezza età, prima, 15 minuti e 24 ore dopo un test incrementale massimale su ciclo ergometro. I risultati offrono nuove evidenze secondo cui l’esercizio acuto aumenta le concentrazioni di irisina e adiponectina subito dopo l’attività fisica, con livelli più alti di irisina, adiponectina e BDNF osservati a 24 ore dall'esercizio. Al contrario, la secrezione di β-endorfina indotta dall’esercizio risulta transitoria, con un picco immediato post-esercizio. Inoltre, il confronto tra gruppi di età ha evidenziato differenze significative nelle concentrazioni di exerkine e nella loro secrezione indotta dall’attività fisica. Degni di nota sono anche i miglioramenti nei test di memoria e creatività registrati 24 ore dopo l’esercizio; negli adulti di mezza età sono state rilevate alcune correlazioni tra exerkine e punteggi specifici nei test cognitivi. Questi risultati suggeriscono che BDNF e irisina potrebbero agire da mediatori molecolari degli effetti positivi dell’esercizio acuto sulla performance cognitiva. Nonostante l’irisina sia stata scoperta solo un decennio fa, la ricerca su questa miochina è cresciuta esponenzialmente, data la sua importanza per la salute umana. L’irisina è ormai riconosciuta come uno dei principali mediatori degli effetti benefici dell’attività fisica (Maak et al., 2021). Questo evidenzia l’importanza di individuare stimoli alternativi all’esercizio o approcci complementari che possano potenziarne il rilascio. È interessante notare che finora nessuno studio ha valutato la stimolazione elettrica funzionale come stimolo per la secrezione di irisina nell’uomo. Pertanto, il secondo studio ha mirato a investigare se l’applicazione della Kinesiterapia con Stimolazione Elettrica Funzionale Adattiva (AFESK™) durante la pedalata potesse aumentare la secrezione di irisina e valutare le eventuali modifiche nelle concentrazioni di irisina a seguito di un intervento di sei settimane di esercizio fisico, con e senza AFESK. A tal fine, la risposta acuta dell’irisina alla pedalata con e senza AFESK è stata valutata all’inizio e alla fine del periodo di allenamento in soggetti sani. Lo studio ha anche esplorato i possibili effetti di adattamento indotti dal periodo di allenamento e ha esaminato gli effetti combinati di AFESK ed esercizio fisico sul comportamento legato alla propensione al rischio. I risultati hanno rivelato che la pedalata con AFESK porta a un maggiore rilascio di irisina un giorno dopo l'esercizio rispetto al ciclismo tradizionale. Tuttavia, la ricerca ha anche mostrato che le sessioni di esercizio fisico, indipendentemente dal tipo di intervento, non hanno avuto un impatto significativo sul comportamento di rischio. Questi risultati evidenziano il potenziale dell’AFESK nel potenziare i benefici fisiologici dell’attività fisica, pur sottolineando la necessità di ulteriori studi per comprenderne le implicazioni più ampie.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AS A SOURCE OF PSYCHOPHYSICAL WELLBEING: EVALUATION OF THE RELEASE OF CIRCULATING EXERKINES AND THEIR POTENTIAL NEUROCOGNITIVE IMPACT
Tommasini, Ester
2025
Abstract
Although the positive effects of exercise on health and disease management are well-known (Piercy et al., 2018), the precise molecular mechanisms underlying these benefits remain poorly understood and are actively being explored. Growing evidence suggests that many metabolic, physiologic and immunological changes triggered by exercise may be attributed to the release humoral factors, known as exerkines, which can influence metabolism and function in organs, either directly or indirectly (Pedersen, 2013; Polito et al., 2020; Scherer, 2006). Indeed, exerkines, by facilitating communication between peripheral and distant organs, play a crucial role in mediating the beneficial effects of exercise on human health through their signalling pathways (Safdar et al., 2016). Moreover, emerging evidence suggests that some exerkines exert direct or indirect effects on the brain (Pedersen, 2019) provides a conceptual groundwork for recommending physical exercise as a therapeutic strategy for various disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases. To date several studies aimed at understanding the release of exerkines and their pleiotropic effects. However, significant knowledge gaps persist, necessitating further investigation. The first research has investigated how physical exercise modulates the release of irisin and adiponectin and has assessed their impact on BDNF secretion, cognitive performance, and the production of β-endorphin, a molecule associated with well-being. Serum levels of irisin, adiponectin, BDNF, and β-endorphin were measured in young and middle-aged male adults before and 15 minutes and 24 hours after an incremental cycling exercise test to exhaustion. The results provide novel evidence that acute exercise enhances irisin and adiponectin concentrations immediately after exercise, with the highest levels of irisin, adiponectin, and BDNF observed 24 hours post-exercise. Instead, exercise-induced β-endorphin secretion is transient, peaking immediately after exercise. Additionally, comparisons between age groups revealed significant differences in exerkines concentrations and their exercise-induced secretion. Notably, improvements in memory and creativity test performances were recorded 24 hours after exercise and in middle-aged adults some correlations were found between exerkines and certain memory and creativity scores. These findings suggest that BDNF and irisin might act as molecular mediators of the positive effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance. Even though, irisin was discovered only a decade ago, research on this myokine has exponentially grown due to its pivotal role in human health. Indeed, irisin is now recognized as one of the primary mediators of the beneficial effects of physical exercise on health (Maak et al., 2021). This underscores the importance of alternative stimuli to exercise or complementary approaches that could further enhance irisin release. Remarkably, no studies have yet evaluated functional electrical stimulation as a stimulus for irisin secretion in humans. Therefore, the second research aimed to investigate whether the application of Adaptive Functional Electrical Stimulation Kinesitherapy (AFESK™) during cycling could enhance irisin secretion and to evaluate potential adaptations in irisin concentrations following a six-week exercise intervention, with and without AFESK. To address this, the acute irisin response to cycling with and without AFESK was evaluated at both the beginning and end of the training period in healthy individuals. The study also explored potential adaptive effects induced by the training period and examined the combined effects of AFESK and physical exercise on risk-taking behaviour. The findings revealed that cycling with AFESK resulted in a greater release of irisin one day post-exercise compared to traditional cycling. However, the research also showed that physical exercise sessions, irrespective of the intervention type, did not significantly impact risk-taking behaviour. These results highlight the potential of AFESK to enhance the physiological benefits of exercise while emphasizing the need for further research on its broader implications.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/209688
URN:NBN:IT:UNICATT-209688