THE LOCAL CEMETERIES OF UPPER EGYPT IN THE PROTO- AND EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD (3300-2700 BC): A NEW CEMETERY AT SOUTH ABYDOS WITHIN ITS REGIONAL CONTEXT

This dissertation explores the proto- and early dynastic cemeteries of Upper Egypt, with a focus on the recently uncovered site at South Abydos. The study aims to understand ancient Egyptian society, examining the social, cultural, and economic factors that influenced burial practices during the Naqada III period. Chapter Summaries • Chapter 1: Introduction The introduction establishes the significance of ancient Egyptian cemeteries as environments where life and death converge. By examining the newly discovered South Abydos cemetery, the chapter provides context for exploring funerary practices and societal organization, highlighting how cemeteries reveal social structures and material culture. This cemetery, situated within the broader Upper Egyptian landscape, serves as a focal point for understanding early dynastic Egyptian beliefs and social dynamics. The chapter also outlines the study's interdisciplinary approach, integrating archaeological excavation data, material analyses, and theoretical frameworks to illuminate early Egyptian perspectives on death and commemoration. • Chapter 2: Local Cemeteries of Upper Egypt This chapter contextualizes the South Abydos cemetery within the landscape of early dynastic cemeteries across Upper Egypt, emphasizing how these spaces represent social structures and community identities through distinct burial practices. • Chapter 3: Landscape Archaeology at Abydos Region The chapter examines Abydos’s landscape, focusing on its role as an early power center. It discusses how the cemetery’s architecture and spatial organization reflect beliefs about social status, identity, and the journey of the deceased, underscoring the importance of landscape in ancient Egyptian funerary customs. • Chapter 4: Methodology Fieldwork, conducted between 2007 and 2011, used an adapted American excavation methodology, evolving over time to include a single-context approach. This chapter discusses the challenges posed by disturbed contexts, yet highlights how findings from excavated artifacts reveal valuable insights into mortuary practices and early dynastic construction techniques. • Chapter 5: Social Practices and Hierarchies in Early Dynastic Abydos Analysis of mortuary practices illustrates complex social relationships and a stratified society, with distinct tomb structures indicating elite status. Grave goods and symbolic artifacts provide insight into social hierarchies and the roles of community members within Abydos. • Chapter 6: Field Investigation Results Excavation results revealed distinctive mud-brick tombs, indicating involvement by skilled builders potentially connected to royal projects at Abydos. The chapter highlights how these tombs reflect Abydos’s influence and its community’s technical knowledge, further demonstrating its societal significance during the early dynastic period. • Chapter 7: Tomb Typologies and Social Stratification This chapter categorizes the tombs by structural layout and grave goods, linking them to specific social ranks. Unique multi-chambered tombs suggest high-status individuals within Abydos society, possibly with connections to the royal court or significant construction projects. • Conclusions The cemetery at South Abydos unveils a distinct social class, marked by unique burial customs and sophisticated tomb architecture, suggesting a community with strong ties to early dynastic royalty. The arrangement of tombs, the specific use of grave goods, and the noticeable absence of child burials reveal ancient Egyptian attitudes toward social status, personal identity, and burial practices. These elements collectively underscore Abydos’s prominence as a center of power and prestige, providing a nuanced perspective on how ancient Egyptians conceptualized life, death, and the afterlife within a structured social and historical framework. This research enhances our understanding of early dynastic Egyptian society, enriching ancient Egyptian studies by shedding light on the complex cultural practices, social hierarchies, and community organization that defined Abydos during this era. The South Abydos cemetery is likely the only known burial ground dedicated exclusively to high-status individuals or the local elite, and it appears to have remained unexcavated until now. The cemetery contains 14 tombs, many of which display unique structural features that have not been observed at other sites in Abydos or beyond. Each tomb generally consists of a large, square or rectangular brick-lined pit, often featuring two to four side chambers intended for grave goods. An exception to this pattern, Tomb IV, includes a central burial chamber surrounded by six smaller rooms, three on each side. The tombs were built using alternating courses of headers and stretchers and plastered with sand or mud—a sophisticated construction method that demonstrates the builders' expertise in both brickwork and the local landscape. The evidence suggests these tombs were constructed by skilled builders, potentially affiliated with early dynastic royal construction projects such as the First Dynasty tombs at Umm el-Qaab or the enclosure walls of early dynastic kings. The design and quality of these tombs imply a direct or indirect connection to the royal court, reinforcing Abydos's significance as a center of elite activity. These findings offer valuable insights into the social structure, architectural developments, and regional influence of early dynastic Abydos, deepening our understanding of elite burial practices and the organization of ancient Egyptian communities during this pivotal period.