Parasites as an animal model for the study of lead contamination in domestic and wild ungulates

The ecosystems are under multiple stresses due to the contaminants which have polluted nearly every aspect of the biome. There is a dire and urgent need for the recognition of environmental issues to devise suitable and sustainable approaches for environmental monitoring and management. The assessment of ecosystem health can be done through employing biological sentinels. In this regard, parasites can provide important clues on the functioning of an ecosystem as they are one of the important determinants of community structure. There are quite a number of studies which have demonstrated the usefulness of parasites, particularly cestodes, acanthocephalans and nematodes, as bioindicators of environmental impact. Due to their ubiquitous presence, ecological relevance and universal applicability, the parasites make excellent accumulation and effect bioindicators. This review particularly focuses on the major attributes of the parasites which make them suitable for bioindication and overviews the studies conducted on host-parasite models in terrestrial ecosystems. It was discerned that the endohelminthic parasitic fauna of mammals and their hosts can act as promising bioindication tools for environmental monitoring as these parasites offer valuable insights into the biological availability of the heavy metals particularly lead and cadmium. However, there are multiple fronts where our lack of understanding hinders employment of parasites in ecotoxicological studies. Therefore, the future research should focus on exploring the mechanisms underlying parasite-pollutant interactions, including the role of parasite physiology, behavior, and ecology in accumulating and responding to pollutants. Integrating parasite bioindication with traditional monitoring approaches may provide a more comprehensive understanding of ecosystem health and pollution impacts.