Oxaliplatin, a third-generation platinum-based chemotherapeutic agent, is a cornerstone in the treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC), particularly as part of the CAPOX and FOLFOX regimens. It has significantly improved survival rates for patients with advanced disease, but the emergence of drug resistance remains a major challenge in clinical oncology, limiting its long-term effectiveness. The development of resistance to oxaliplatin is a multifaceted process, driven by a complex interplay of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors within the tumor microenvironment. These factors allow cancer cells to adapt to chemotherapy-induced selective pressure, evading drug-induced cytotoxicity and eventually resulting in treatment failure and disease progression. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underpinning oxaliplatin resistance is crucial for developing strategies to overcome it and for improving therapeutic outcomes. To explore the molecular bases of oxaliplatin resistance in CRC, this study combines the use of patient-derived tumor organoid (PDTO) models with advanced genomic and transcriptomic analyses. These PDTO models offer a robust and clinically relevant system that preserves the genetic, phenotypic, and molecular characteristics of the original tumor, allowing for more accurate in vitro modeling of resistance mechanisms. By generating oxaliplatin-resistant PDTOs through prolonged drug exposure, the study identifies key mutations and dysregulated pathways that contribute to the resistance phenotype. These findings were further validated in clinical FFPE (formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded) tumor samples obtained from CRC patients treated with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy, demonstrating the potential clinical utility of these models and the importance of molecular profiling in predicting therapeutic response. The results of this study highlight the role of several genetic alterations in driving oxaliplatin resistance. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) of both drug-sensitive and drug-resistant organoid clones revealed multiple novel mutations associated with resistance. Among these, alterations in THSD7B, a gene encoding a membrane protein involved in cellular adhesion, were found to be significantly enriched in resistant clones. Mutations in THSD7B, including a frameshift mutation leading to a premature stop codon, disrupted cell-cell adhesion, potentially contributing to tumor progression and metastasis. Additionally, the LARGE1 gene, which encodes a glycosyltransferase responsible for modifying α-dystroglycan (α-DG), was identified as another key player in oxaliplatin resistance. A missense mutation in LARGE1 was predicted to impair its function, resulting in the hypoglycosylation of α-DG, which in turn affects ECM interactions and promotes tumor cell migration and invasion. These findings indicate that defects in cell adhesion and ECM remodeling can significantly impact oxaliplatin resistance by enhancing tumor cell plasticity and promoting metastasis. In addition to these findings, the study uncovered alterations in genes involved in cellular metabolism, particularly those related to glucose uptake and glycolysis. Genes such as PGM5 and ALDOB, which are critical regulators of the Warburg effect, were found to be differentially expressed in oxaliplatin-resistant organoids. These metabolic reprogramming events, such as the upregulation of ALDOB and the downregulation of PGM5, provide a survival advantage to tumor cells under chemotherapeutic pressure. The upregulation of ALDOB, in particular, has been linked to poor prognosis in CRC, further supporting its potential role as a therapeutic target in the context of drug resistance. Transcriptomic analysis revealed significant differences in gene expression between drug-sensitive and drug-resistant organoid clones, with a total of 1,406 differentially expressed genes. Of these, 611 were upregulated and 795 were downregulated, with many of the changes associated with pathways involved in cell adhesion, ECM remodeling, and metabolic regulation. These findings were corroborated by principal component analysis (PCA) and heatmap clustering, confirming the distinct molecular profiles of the resistant organoids compared to sensitive ones. The altered expression of genes involved in extracellular matrix organization and cell adhesion processes, such as COL6A3, ROBO2, and CNTNAP3B, highlights the relevance of these pathways in the acquisition of drug resistance. To validate the relevance of these findings in a clinical context, the study extended its analysis to FFPE samples from CRC patients treated with the CAPOX regimen, specifically comparing samples from patients who responded to treatment (responders) with those who did not (non-responders). Tumor mutational burden (TMB) analysis revealed a higher average TMB in non-responder patients, supporting the idea that increased mutation load is associated with poor prognosis and chemotherapy resistance. The analysis of 202 mutated genes identified a subset of 93 variants that were considered likely pathogenic and potentially involved in the resistance phenotype. Notably, mutations in genes such as APC, FGFR2, PTEN, and KRAS were found to be more frequent in non-responders. These genes are known to influence CRC pathogenesis, and their alterations may disrupt critical cellular processes, including DNA repair, cell signaling, and tumor progression, contributing to resistance. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis revealed complex relationships among the identified mutations, with central nodes such as BRCA2, ATM, and MSH2 implicated in DNA repair mechanisms. These findings suggest that defects in DNA repair pathways, particularly those involved in double-strand break repair, play a critical role in enabling CRC cells to resist the cytotoxic effects of oxaliplatin. Moreover, mutations in genes like PRELP, involved in ECM organization, further emphasize the importance of cellular adhesion and the extracellular matrix in modulating responses to chemotherapy. These molecular alterations highlight the multifactorial nature of drug resistance in CRC, where disruptions in multiple pathways intersect to promote tumor survival under drug-induced stress. The identification of key mutations in DNA repair genes, such as ATM, BRCA2, and MSH2, as well as alterations in genes related to cell signaling and apoptosis regulation, underscores the importance of understanding how these pathways contribute to oxaliplatin resistance. Mutations in these genes impair the ability of CRC cells to repair chemotherapy-induced DNA damage, leading to genomic instability and the development of resistance. The study also identified mutations in genes involved in drug transport and intracellular signaling, such as SLC22A24, ABCE1, and CYP2C19, suggesting that alterations in drug uptake, efflux, and signaling may play a role in modulating resistance. The co-occurrence and mutual exclusivity analysis of mutations in non-responder patients provided additional insights into how specific genetic alterations may work in concert or oppose each other in modulating treatment response. For example, the co-occurrence of mutations in BRCA2 and FGFR2 aligns with previous studies suggesting that these alterations may contribute to a poor prognosis when present together. The mutual exclusivity of mutations in APC and BRCA2 or KRAS and FGFR2 further adds to the complexity of CRC genetics, suggesting that certain mutations may have compensatory effects or interfere with each other's functions, impacting treatment outcomes. These findings demonstrate the power of next-generation sequencing (NGS) as a diagnostic tool for uncovering critical mutations that underlie drug resistance in CRC. The use of NGS profiling panels enabled the identification of specific genetic alterations that are associated with resistance to oxaliplatin, both in vitro and in clinical samples. By integrating these findings into clinical practice, NGS panels could become a valuable tool for predicting which patients are more likely to respond to oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy and which patients may require alternative therapeutic strategies. The development of a specific diagnostic NGS panel based on these findings could revolutionize personalized treatment for CRC patients. Such a panel would allow oncologists to assess the genetic landscape of individual tumors and tailor chemotherapy regimens accordingly. By identifying mutations in genes such as THSD7B, LARGE1, PRELP, and others involved in ECM remodeling, metabolic reprogramming, and cell adhesion, clinicians could make more informed decisions regarding treatment strategies. This would lead to improved clinical outcomes and reduced risk of treatment failure. However, the complexity of drug resistance mechanisms highlighted by this study also calls for the development of more sophisticated analytical pipelines for the analysis of omics data. Traditional single-gene or pathway-based approaches may not fully capture the multifactorial nature of resistance. Therefore, there is a growing need for integrative multi-omics strategies that combine genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic data to provide a comprehensive molecular profile of tumors. Advanced computational tools and bioinformatics techniques are critical for analyzing large-scale omics datasets, identifying relevant biomarkers, and establishing connections between mutations, molecular pathways, and clinical outcomes. In conclusion, this study offers a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving oxaliplatin resistance in CRC and provides a promising framework for the development of a diagnostic NGS-based panel to predict therapeutic response. The identification of key mutations, their validation in PDTO models, and the integration of clinical data demonstrate the potential of molecular profiling to guide personalized treatment strategies. The study also highlights the need for advanced analytical tools to better understand the complex resistance mechanisms in CRC and suggests that both pre-clinical and clinical models will be essential in the ongoing effort to establish reliable molecular signatures for drug resistance. This research sets the stage for future studies focused on identifying additional biomarkers and therapeutic targets, ultimately paving the way for more effective and personalized cancer treatment.
Oxaliplatino, un agente chemioterapico di terza generazione a base di platino, rappresenta una pietra miliare nel trattamento del cancro colorettale (CRC), in particolare come parte dei regimi CAPOX e FOLFOX. Ha migliorato significativamente i tassi di sopravvivenza dei pazienti con malattia avanzata, ma l'insorgenza della resistenza ai farmaci rimane una sfida importante nell'oncologia clinica, limitandone l'efficacia a lungo termine. Lo sviluppo della resistenza all'oxaliplatino è un processo multifattoriale, guidato da una complessa interazione di fattori genetici, epigenetici e ambientali all'interno del microambiente tumorale. Questi fattori consentono alle cellule tumorali di adattarsi alla pressione selettiva indotta dalla chemioterapia, eludendo la citotossicità indotta dal farmaco e portando infine al fallimento del trattamento e alla progressione della malattia. Comprendere i meccanismi molecolari alla base della resistenza all'oxaliplatino è fondamentale per sviluppare strategie per superarla e migliorare i risultati terapeutici. Per esplorare le basi molecolari della resistenza all'oxaliplatino nel CRC, questo studio combina l'uso di modelli di organoidi tumorali derivati da pazienti (PDTO) con analisi genomiche e trascrittomiche avanzate. Questi modelli PDTO offrono un sistema robusto e clinicamente rilevante che preserva le caratteristiche genetiche, fenotipiche e molecolari del tumore originale, consentendo una modellizzazione in vitro più accurata dei meccanismi di resistenza. Attraverso l'esposizione prolungata al farmaco, sono stati generati PDTO resistenti all'oxaliplatino, permettendo di identificare mutazioni chiave e vie deregolate che contribuiscono al fenotipo resistente. Questi risultati sono stati ulteriormente validati in campioni tumorali clinici FFPE (fissati in formalina e inclusi in paraffina) ottenuti da pazienti con CRC trattati con chemioterapia a base di oxaliplatino, dimostrando l'utilità clinica di questi modelli e l'importanza della profilazione molecolare nella predizione della risposta terapeutica. I risultati dello studio evidenziano il ruolo di diverse alterazioni genetiche nella resistenza all'oxaliplatino. Il sequenziamento dell'esoma completo (WES) di cloni di organoidi sensibili e resistenti al farmaco ha rivelato numerose nuove mutazioni associate alla resistenza. Tra queste, le alterazioni del gene THSD7B, che codifica una proteina di membrana coinvolta nell'adesione cellulare, sono risultate significativamente arricchite nei cloni resistenti. Mutazioni in THSD7B, inclusa una mutazione frameshift che porta a un codone di stop prematuro, hanno compromesso l'adesione cellula-cellula, contribuendo potenzialmente alla progressione tumorale e alla metastasi. Inoltre, il gene LARGE1, che codifica una glicosiltransferasi responsabile della modificazione di α-distroglucano (α-DG), è stato identificato come un altro attore chiave nella resistenza all'oxaliplatino. Una mutazione missenso in LARGE1 è stata predetta come responsabile di alterazioni nella funzione della proteina, causando ipoglicosilazione di α-DG, che a sua volta influenza le interazioni con la matrice extracellulare (ECM) e favorisce la migrazione e l'invasione delle cellule tumorali. Questi risultati indicano che difetti nell'adesione cellulare e nel rimodellamento dell'ECM possono avere un impatto significativo sulla resistenza all'oxaliplatino, aumentando la plasticità delle cellule tumorali e promuovendo la metastasi. Oltre a queste scoperte, lo studio ha rivelato alterazioni in geni coinvolti nel metabolismo cellulare, in particolare quelli legati all'assorbimento del glucosio e alla glicolisi. Geni come PGM5 e ALDOB, regolatori critici dell'effetto Warburg, sono risultati espressi in modo differenziale negli organoidi resistenti all'oxaliplatino. Eventi di riprogrammazione metabolica, come la sovraregolazione di ALDOB e la sotto-regolazione di PGM5, conferiscono un vantaggio di sopravvivenza alle cellule tumorali sotto pressione chemioterapica. In particolare, la sovraregolazione di ALDOB è stata associata a una prognosi sfavorevole nel CRC, supportandone ulteriormente il potenziale ruolo come target terapeutico nel contesto della resistenza ai farmaci. L'analisi trascrittomica ha rivelato differenze significative nell'espressione genica tra i cloni di organoidi sensibili e resistenti al farmaco, con un totale di 1.406 geni differenzialmente espressi. Di questi, 611 erano sovraregolati e 795 sottoregolati, con molti cambiamenti associati a vie coinvolte nell'adesione cellulare, nel rimodellamento dell'ECM e nella regolazione metabolica. Questi risultati sono stati confermati dall'analisi delle componenti principali (PCA) e dal clustering tramite heatmap, che hanno dimostrato profili molecolari distinti tra gli organoidi resistenti e quelli sensibili. L'alterata espressione di geni coinvolti nell'organizzazione della matrice extracellulare e nei processi di adesione cellulare, come COL6A3, ROBO2 e CNTNAP3B, sottolinea la rilevanza di queste vie nell'acquisizione della resistenza ai farmaci. Per validare la rilevanza di queste scoperte in un contesto clinico, l'analisi è stata estesa a campioni FFPE di pazienti con CRC trattati con il regime CAPOX, confrontando specificamente i campioni di pazienti che hanno risposto al trattamento (responder) con quelli che non hanno risposto (non-responder). L'analisi del carico mutazionale tumorale (TMB) ha rivelato un TMB medio più elevato nei pazienti non-responder, supportando l'idea che un aumento del carico mutazionale sia associato a una prognosi sfavorevole e alla resistenza alla chemioterapia. L'analisi di 202 geni mutati ha identificato un sottoinsieme di 93 varianti considerate probabilmente patogene e potenzialmente coinvolte nel fenotipo resistente. Tra queste, le mutazioni in geni come APC, FGFR2, PTEN e KRAS sono risultate più frequenti nei non-responder. Questi geni, noti per influenzare la patogenesi del CRC, potrebbero alterare processi cellulari critici, inclusi la riparazione del DNA, la segnalazione cellulare e la progressione tumorale, contribuendo alla resistenza. L'analisi delle reti di interazione proteina-proteina (PPI) ha rivelato relazioni complesse tra le mutazioni identificate, con nodi centrali come BRCA2, ATM e MSH2 implicati nei meccanismi di riparazione del DNA. Questi risultati suggeriscono che i difetti nelle vie di riparazione del DNA, in particolare quelle coinvolte nella riparazione delle rotture a doppio filamento, giocano un ruolo cruciale nel consentire alle cellule di CRC di resistere agli effetti citotossici dell'oxaliplatino. Inoltre, mutazioni in geni come PRELP, coinvolti nell'organizzazione dell'ECM, enfatizzano ulteriormente l'importanza dell'adesione cellulare e della matrice extracellulare nella modulazione della risposta alla chemioterapia. Queste alterazioni molecolari evidenziano la natura multifattoriale della resistenza ai farmaci nel CRC, dove interruzioni in più vie si intersecano per promuovere la sopravvivenza tumorale sotto stress farmacologico. Questa ricerca stabilisce le basi per studi futuri finalizzati all'identificazione di ulteriori biomarcatori e bersagli terapeutici, aprendo la strada a trattamenti oncologici più efficaci e personalizzati.
Comprehensive Analysis of Oxaliplatin Resistance Mechanisms and Mutational Patterns in Colorectal Cancer: Integrating Tumor Organoids, NGS Profiling and Transcriptomics for Precision Oncology
RICCI, DARIA
2025
Abstract
Oxaliplatin, a third-generation platinum-based chemotherapeutic agent, is a cornerstone in the treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC), particularly as part of the CAPOX and FOLFOX regimens. It has significantly improved survival rates for patients with advanced disease, but the emergence of drug resistance remains a major challenge in clinical oncology, limiting its long-term effectiveness. The development of resistance to oxaliplatin is a multifaceted process, driven by a complex interplay of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors within the tumor microenvironment. These factors allow cancer cells to adapt to chemotherapy-induced selective pressure, evading drug-induced cytotoxicity and eventually resulting in treatment failure and disease progression. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underpinning oxaliplatin resistance is crucial for developing strategies to overcome it and for improving therapeutic outcomes. To explore the molecular bases of oxaliplatin resistance in CRC, this study combines the use of patient-derived tumor organoid (PDTO) models with advanced genomic and transcriptomic analyses. These PDTO models offer a robust and clinically relevant system that preserves the genetic, phenotypic, and molecular characteristics of the original tumor, allowing for more accurate in vitro modeling of resistance mechanisms. By generating oxaliplatin-resistant PDTOs through prolonged drug exposure, the study identifies key mutations and dysregulated pathways that contribute to the resistance phenotype. These findings were further validated in clinical FFPE (formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded) tumor samples obtained from CRC patients treated with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy, demonstrating the potential clinical utility of these models and the importance of molecular profiling in predicting therapeutic response. The results of this study highlight the role of several genetic alterations in driving oxaliplatin resistance. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) of both drug-sensitive and drug-resistant organoid clones revealed multiple novel mutations associated with resistance. Among these, alterations in THSD7B, a gene encoding a membrane protein involved in cellular adhesion, were found to be significantly enriched in resistant clones. Mutations in THSD7B, including a frameshift mutation leading to a premature stop codon, disrupted cell-cell adhesion, potentially contributing to tumor progression and metastasis. Additionally, the LARGE1 gene, which encodes a glycosyltransferase responsible for modifying α-dystroglycan (α-DG), was identified as another key player in oxaliplatin resistance. A missense mutation in LARGE1 was predicted to impair its function, resulting in the hypoglycosylation of α-DG, which in turn affects ECM interactions and promotes tumor cell migration and invasion. These findings indicate that defects in cell adhesion and ECM remodeling can significantly impact oxaliplatin resistance by enhancing tumor cell plasticity and promoting metastasis. In addition to these findings, the study uncovered alterations in genes involved in cellular metabolism, particularly those related to glucose uptake and glycolysis. Genes such as PGM5 and ALDOB, which are critical regulators of the Warburg effect, were found to be differentially expressed in oxaliplatin-resistant organoids. These metabolic reprogramming events, such as the upregulation of ALDOB and the downregulation of PGM5, provide a survival advantage to tumor cells under chemotherapeutic pressure. The upregulation of ALDOB, in particular, has been linked to poor prognosis in CRC, further supporting its potential role as a therapeutic target in the context of drug resistance. Transcriptomic analysis revealed significant differences in gene expression between drug-sensitive and drug-resistant organoid clones, with a total of 1,406 differentially expressed genes. Of these, 611 were upregulated and 795 were downregulated, with many of the changes associated with pathways involved in cell adhesion, ECM remodeling, and metabolic regulation. These findings were corroborated by principal component analysis (PCA) and heatmap clustering, confirming the distinct molecular profiles of the resistant organoids compared to sensitive ones. The altered expression of genes involved in extracellular matrix organization and cell adhesion processes, such as COL6A3, ROBO2, and CNTNAP3B, highlights the relevance of these pathways in the acquisition of drug resistance. To validate the relevance of these findings in a clinical context, the study extended its analysis to FFPE samples from CRC patients treated with the CAPOX regimen, specifically comparing samples from patients who responded to treatment (responders) with those who did not (non-responders). Tumor mutational burden (TMB) analysis revealed a higher average TMB in non-responder patients, supporting the idea that increased mutation load is associated with poor prognosis and chemotherapy resistance. The analysis of 202 mutated genes identified a subset of 93 variants that were considered likely pathogenic and potentially involved in the resistance phenotype. Notably, mutations in genes such as APC, FGFR2, PTEN, and KRAS were found to be more frequent in non-responders. These genes are known to influence CRC pathogenesis, and their alterations may disrupt critical cellular processes, including DNA repair, cell signaling, and tumor progression, contributing to resistance. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis revealed complex relationships among the identified mutations, with central nodes such as BRCA2, ATM, and MSH2 implicated in DNA repair mechanisms. These findings suggest that defects in DNA repair pathways, particularly those involved in double-strand break repair, play a critical role in enabling CRC cells to resist the cytotoxic effects of oxaliplatin. Moreover, mutations in genes like PRELP, involved in ECM organization, further emphasize the importance of cellular adhesion and the extracellular matrix in modulating responses to chemotherapy. These molecular alterations highlight the multifactorial nature of drug resistance in CRC, where disruptions in multiple pathways intersect to promote tumor survival under drug-induced stress. The identification of key mutations in DNA repair genes, such as ATM, BRCA2, and MSH2, as well as alterations in genes related to cell signaling and apoptosis regulation, underscores the importance of understanding how these pathways contribute to oxaliplatin resistance. Mutations in these genes impair the ability of CRC cells to repair chemotherapy-induced DNA damage, leading to genomic instability and the development of resistance. The study also identified mutations in genes involved in drug transport and intracellular signaling, such as SLC22A24, ABCE1, and CYP2C19, suggesting that alterations in drug uptake, efflux, and signaling may play a role in modulating resistance. The co-occurrence and mutual exclusivity analysis of mutations in non-responder patients provided additional insights into how specific genetic alterations may work in concert or oppose each other in modulating treatment response. For example, the co-occurrence of mutations in BRCA2 and FGFR2 aligns with previous studies suggesting that these alterations may contribute to a poor prognosis when present together. The mutual exclusivity of mutations in APC and BRCA2 or KRAS and FGFR2 further adds to the complexity of CRC genetics, suggesting that certain mutations may have compensatory effects or interfere with each other's functions, impacting treatment outcomes. These findings demonstrate the power of next-generation sequencing (NGS) as a diagnostic tool for uncovering critical mutations that underlie drug resistance in CRC. The use of NGS profiling panels enabled the identification of specific genetic alterations that are associated with resistance to oxaliplatin, both in vitro and in clinical samples. By integrating these findings into clinical practice, NGS panels could become a valuable tool for predicting which patients are more likely to respond to oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy and which patients may require alternative therapeutic strategies. The development of a specific diagnostic NGS panel based on these findings could revolutionize personalized treatment for CRC patients. Such a panel would allow oncologists to assess the genetic landscape of individual tumors and tailor chemotherapy regimens accordingly. By identifying mutations in genes such as THSD7B, LARGE1, PRELP, and others involved in ECM remodeling, metabolic reprogramming, and cell adhesion, clinicians could make more informed decisions regarding treatment strategies. This would lead to improved clinical outcomes and reduced risk of treatment failure. However, the complexity of drug resistance mechanisms highlighted by this study also calls for the development of more sophisticated analytical pipelines for the analysis of omics data. Traditional single-gene or pathway-based approaches may not fully capture the multifactorial nature of resistance. Therefore, there is a growing need for integrative multi-omics strategies that combine genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic data to provide a comprehensive molecular profile of tumors. Advanced computational tools and bioinformatics techniques are critical for analyzing large-scale omics datasets, identifying relevant biomarkers, and establishing connections between mutations, molecular pathways, and clinical outcomes. In conclusion, this study offers a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving oxaliplatin resistance in CRC and provides a promising framework for the development of a diagnostic NGS-based panel to predict therapeutic response. The identification of key mutations, their validation in PDTO models, and the integration of clinical data demonstrate the potential of molecular profiling to guide personalized treatment strategies. The study also highlights the need for advanced analytical tools to better understand the complex resistance mechanisms in CRC and suggests that both pre-clinical and clinical models will be essential in the ongoing effort to establish reliable molecular signatures for drug resistance. This research sets the stage for future studies focused on identifying additional biomarkers and therapeutic targets, ultimately paving the way for more effective and personalized cancer treatment.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/218845
URN:NBN:IT:UNICT-218845