Nowadays, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) dominate the market thanks to their lightweight design, fast charge and discharge capabilities, high voltage, and long service life. However, LIBs rely on scarcely available materials on Earth, such as lithium and cobalt, which are also subject to high costs, high price volatility, and humanitarian issues. Furthermore, commercial LIBs commonly use liquid solvents as electrolytes that pose serious safety concerns (i.e., flammability, toxicity, and battery swelling), and that additionally limit the maximum achievable voltage and battery performance over time. Therefore, the scientific community has investigated more environmentally friendly alternative and complementary batteries that use widely abundant elements (e.g., potassium batteries), as well as natural, low-impact polymeric materials to improve performance, cost, energy, safety, and sustainability compared to batteries based on liquid electrolytes. In the works reported in this Ph.D. dissertation, the development and characterization of novel polymeric materials based on bio-derived or low-impact precursors, such as lignin and sulfur, are presented. These materials are designed to be used as polymer electrolytes with tunable physicochemical properties in lithium and potassium batteries. Three categories of polymer electrolytes were investigated: gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs), composite polymer electrolytes (CPEs), and solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs). The first study was conducted using lignin as a reactive biobased monomer to synthesize a set of sustainable membranes by crosslinking with poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether (PEGDGE) at increasing molecular weights (Mw), namely 200, 500, and 1000 g mol-1. A pre-oxidation treatment was performed on Kraft lignin to increase its reactivity in the crosslinking reaction with PEGDGE, resulting in self-standing membranes. These crosslinked materials were investigated by means of thermal, microstructural, and chemical characterizations to elucidate the structure-property relationship between lignin and the Mw of PEGDGE. After activating these lignin-based membranes as GPE by incorporating solvated potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF6) in ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC), the in-depth electrochemical characterizations allowed to further examine the interplay between structure and electrochemical behavior in potassium device prototypes. To improve the performance, reliability, and lifetime of polymer electrolytes in battery applications, as well as enhance the mechanical and electrochemical properties for dendrite mitigation, lignin was used as a size-reduced bio-filler in self-healable composite GPEs for potassium batteries. First, Soda lignin was treated using ultrasonication and then dispersed at different weight percentages in a UV crosslinking formulation based on synthesized ureido-pyrimidinone (UPy) and polycaprolactone (PCL)-derived precursors. The self-healing capability is related to the formation of multiple hydrogen bonds between UPy moieties, which increases the material durability. On the other hand, the incorporation of size-reduced fillers (viz., high surface-to-volume ratio) can enhance ionic conductivity and improve mechanical properties, which are crucial for mitigating dendrites. Once the fabrication of composite membranes was optimized using bar coating deposition followed by UV irradiation, self-healable GPEs were obtained by swelling them in an EC:DEC solution containing potassium bis(fluorosulfonyl) imide (KFSI). The effect of lignin addition on the microstructure, crosslinking kinetics, thermal transitions, and rheological properties was investigated, as well as the electrochemical properties in potassium cell prototypes. Moreover, the self-healing capabilities of these systems in both ex-situ (dry state) and in-situ (swollen state) battery applications were assessed, and the potential impact of lignin filler in the healing process was also evaluated. In the attempt to explore SPEs as alternatives to GPEs and expand knowledge of this missing polymer electrolyte category, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) acrylic networks containing different sulfur-based functional groups were investigated. The strategy relied on exploring the versatility of sulfur in chemical functionalization to modulate interactions with ionic species by tailoring the polarity of these groups. This polymer design approach aimed at improving the electrochemical stability and ionic conductivity of PEG-based SPEs in order to provide alternative or enhanced materials compared to them. To this end, three novel diacrylate monomers were chemically synthesized and in-depth characterized as precursors to develop SPEs containing sulfide/thioether (R-S-R), sulfoxide-sulfone (SO-SO2), and novel methyl sulfonium groups (CH3-S+). The monomers were used in a solvent casting procedure followed by UV crosslinking to produce SPEs that embed lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl) imide (LiFSI). The resulting sulfur-containing SPEs were then electrochemically characterized to evaluate and compare ionic conductivity, electrochemical stability window (ESW), and interfacial stability using plating and stripping analysis. The influence of the three aforementioned sulfur-based moieties and LiFSI salt load on both physicochemical and electrochemical properties of SPEs was evaluated and compared among them and with respect to poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG13DA), which was taken as a reference for fully PEG SPEs.
Al giorno d'oggi, le batterie agli ioni litio (LIBs) dominano il mercato odierno grazie alla loro leggerezza, velocità di carica e scarica, voltaggio e longevità operativa. Tuttavia, tali batterie impiegano materiali che presentano una disponibilità limitata in natura, come litio e cobalto, i quali sono perciò caratterizzati da elevati costi, alta volatilità di prezzo e problematiche etiche ed umanitarie legate al loro processo di estrazione mineraria. In aggiunta, le LIBs commercialmente disponibili sul mercato impiegano principalmente solventi liquidi come elettroliti, che presentano seri rischi per la sicurezza, (infiammabilità, tossicità, rigonfiamento delle batterie), limitando così sia la massima tensione teorica raggiungibile che le prestazioni nel tempo. Per questi motivi, la comunità scientifica ha iniziato a studiare tecnologie di batterie alternative e più sostenibili, basate su elementi ampiamente disponibili sulla Terra (come le batterie al potassio), e sull'impiego di materiali polimerici di origine naturale, al fine di migliorare prestazioni, sicurezza, costi ed ecosostenibilità rispetto ai sistemi tradizionali basati su elettroliti liquidi. L'obiettivo di questa tesi di dottorato è presentare lo sviluppo e la caratterizzazione di nuovi materiali polimerici, derivati da precursori naturali e a basso impatto ambientale, come la lignina e lo zolfo. Tali materiali innovativi sono stati concepiti per essere impiegati come elettroliti polimerici per applicazioni in batterie al litio e al potassio, mediante una attenta analisi e ottimizzazione delle loro proprietà chimico-fisiche. Nel corso dell’intera attività di ricerca, sono state esaminate tre categorie di elettroliti polimerici: elettroliti gel polimerici (GPEs), elettroliti polimerici compositi (CPEs) ed elettroliti polimerici solidi (SPEs). Il primo studio presenta la sintesi di membrane sostenibili, impiegando la lignina come monomero biobased e reattivo tramite crosslinking con polietilenglicole diglicidil etere (PEGDGE) a diversi pesi molecolari (200, 500 e 1000 g mol⁻¹). Un pretrattamento di ossidazione è stato condotto sulla lignina Kraft al fine di incrementare la sua reattività con il PEGDGE nella reazione di reticolazione, permettendo così la formazione di membrane integre e maneggiabili. Una volta reticolate, sono state poi analizzate tramite caratterizzazioni termiche, microstrutturali e chimiche al fine di elucidare la correlazione tra struttura e proprietà in funzione del peso molecolare del PEGDGE. Queste membrane a base di lignina sono state attivate come GPE incorporando una soluzione di KPF₆ in etilene carbonato (EC) e dietil carbonato (DEC), per poi essere caratterizzate approfonditamente dal punto di vista elettrochimico. Questo approccio ha consentito quindi di analizzare anche la correlazione tra struttura e comportamento elettrochimico in prototipi di batterie al potassio. Al fine di incrementare le prestazioni, l'affidabilità e la durata degli elettroliti polimerici, oltre che a migliorare le proprietà meccaniche ed elettrochimiche per la mitigazione delle dendriti, la lignina è stata miniaturizzata e utilizzata come biofiller micrometrico all'interno di GPE compositi e autoriparanti per batterie al potassio. La lignina Soda è stata sottoposta a trattamento con ultrasuoni e successivamente dispersa a diverse percentuali (wt. %) in formulazioni fotoreticolabili costituite da precursori a base di ureido-pirimidinone (UPy) e policaprolattone (PCL). La capacità autoriparante di questi materiali è correlata alla formazione di legami idrogeno multipli tra i gruppi UPy, che conferiscono al GPE una maggiore durabilità. Inoltre, l'incorporazione del filler lignina di piccole dimensioni ha favorito un incremento della conducibilità ionica e delle proprietà meccaniche, grazie all'elevato rapporto superficie-volume. Tali aspetti si rivelano di cruciale importanza per la mitigazione delle dendriti. Le membrane composite ed autoriparanti sono state ottenute tramite bar coating e successiva fotoreticolazione, per poi essere attivate come GPE tramite swelling in una soluzione di KFSi in EC:DEC. In questo studio, si è investigato l’impatto dell'aggiunta di lignina sulla cinetica di reticolazione, microstruttura, transizioni termiche e proprietà reologiche delle membrane, nonché sull'effetto sulla proprietà elettrochimica in prototipi di celle al potassio. Anche le capacità autoriparanti sono state valutate sia in condizioni ex-situ (dry state) sia in-situ (swollen state), valutando l'effetto del filler ligninico nel processo di riparazione del materiale. Infine, per esplorare gli SPEs come alternativa ai GPEs e ampliare così le conoscenze di questa categoria, sono stati sviluppati materiali acrilici crosslinkati a base di polietilenglicole (PEG) e contenenti gruppi sulfurei funzionalizzati. La versatilità dello zolfo nella sua funzionalizzazione chimica è stata sfruttata per modulare le interazioni con le specie ioniche attraverso la variazione della polarità del gruppo funzionale. L’obiettivo è stato migliorare la stabilità elettrochimica e la conducibilità ionica degli SPEs a base PEG, fornendo materiali alternativi o migliorati rispetto a quelli convenzionali. A tal fine, sono stati sintetizzati e caratterizzati tre nuovi monomeri diacrilati contenenti rispettivamente gruppi tioetere (R-S-R), solfossido-solfone (SO-SO₂) e funzionalità innovative a base di metil-sulfonio (CH₃-S⁺). I monomeri sono stati processati via solvent casting e successivamente UV fotoreticolati per produrre SPEs inglobanti sali di LiFSI. I materiali ottenuti sono stati caratterizzati elettrochimicamente per valutare la conducibilità ionica, la stabilità elettrochimica (ESW) e la stabilità di interfaccia con il litio metallico. L’influenza dei tre gruppi a base zolfo e del contenuto di LiFSI sulle proprietà chimico-fisiche ed elettrochimiche degli SPEs è stata valutata e confrontata sia tra di loro che con un riferimento a base di solo polietilenglicole diacrilato (PEG13DA), scelto come benchmark per sistemi interamente PEG based.
Functional polymers and nanocomposites for energy storage devices
GIUSEPPE, PASCUZZI
2025
Abstract
Nowadays, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) dominate the market thanks to their lightweight design, fast charge and discharge capabilities, high voltage, and long service life. However, LIBs rely on scarcely available materials on Earth, such as lithium and cobalt, which are also subject to high costs, high price volatility, and humanitarian issues. Furthermore, commercial LIBs commonly use liquid solvents as electrolytes that pose serious safety concerns (i.e., flammability, toxicity, and battery swelling), and that additionally limit the maximum achievable voltage and battery performance over time. Therefore, the scientific community has investigated more environmentally friendly alternative and complementary batteries that use widely abundant elements (e.g., potassium batteries), as well as natural, low-impact polymeric materials to improve performance, cost, energy, safety, and sustainability compared to batteries based on liquid electrolytes. In the works reported in this Ph.D. dissertation, the development and characterization of novel polymeric materials based on bio-derived or low-impact precursors, such as lignin and sulfur, are presented. These materials are designed to be used as polymer electrolytes with tunable physicochemical properties in lithium and potassium batteries. Three categories of polymer electrolytes were investigated: gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs), composite polymer electrolytes (CPEs), and solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs). The first study was conducted using lignin as a reactive biobased monomer to synthesize a set of sustainable membranes by crosslinking with poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether (PEGDGE) at increasing molecular weights (Mw), namely 200, 500, and 1000 g mol-1. A pre-oxidation treatment was performed on Kraft lignin to increase its reactivity in the crosslinking reaction with PEGDGE, resulting in self-standing membranes. These crosslinked materials were investigated by means of thermal, microstructural, and chemical characterizations to elucidate the structure-property relationship between lignin and the Mw of PEGDGE. After activating these lignin-based membranes as GPE by incorporating solvated potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF6) in ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC), the in-depth electrochemical characterizations allowed to further examine the interplay between structure and electrochemical behavior in potassium device prototypes. To improve the performance, reliability, and lifetime of polymer electrolytes in battery applications, as well as enhance the mechanical and electrochemical properties for dendrite mitigation, lignin was used as a size-reduced bio-filler in self-healable composite GPEs for potassium batteries. First, Soda lignin was treated using ultrasonication and then dispersed at different weight percentages in a UV crosslinking formulation based on synthesized ureido-pyrimidinone (UPy) and polycaprolactone (PCL)-derived precursors. The self-healing capability is related to the formation of multiple hydrogen bonds between UPy moieties, which increases the material durability. On the other hand, the incorporation of size-reduced fillers (viz., high surface-to-volume ratio) can enhance ionic conductivity and improve mechanical properties, which are crucial for mitigating dendrites. Once the fabrication of composite membranes was optimized using bar coating deposition followed by UV irradiation, self-healable GPEs were obtained by swelling them in an EC:DEC solution containing potassium bis(fluorosulfonyl) imide (KFSI). The effect of lignin addition on the microstructure, crosslinking kinetics, thermal transitions, and rheological properties was investigated, as well as the electrochemical properties in potassium cell prototypes. Moreover, the self-healing capabilities of these systems in both ex-situ (dry state) and in-situ (swollen state) battery applications were assessed, and the potential impact of lignin filler in the healing process was also evaluated. In the attempt to explore SPEs as alternatives to GPEs and expand knowledge of this missing polymer electrolyte category, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) acrylic networks containing different sulfur-based functional groups were investigated. The strategy relied on exploring the versatility of sulfur in chemical functionalization to modulate interactions with ionic species by tailoring the polarity of these groups. This polymer design approach aimed at improving the electrochemical stability and ionic conductivity of PEG-based SPEs in order to provide alternative or enhanced materials compared to them. To this end, three novel diacrylate monomers were chemically synthesized and in-depth characterized as precursors to develop SPEs containing sulfide/thioether (R-S-R), sulfoxide-sulfone (SO-SO2), and novel methyl sulfonium groups (CH3-S+). The monomers were used in a solvent casting procedure followed by UV crosslinking to produce SPEs that embed lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl) imide (LiFSI). The resulting sulfur-containing SPEs were then electrochemically characterized to evaluate and compare ionic conductivity, electrochemical stability window (ESW), and interfacial stability using plating and stripping analysis. The influence of the three aforementioned sulfur-based moieties and LiFSI salt load on both physicochemical and electrochemical properties of SPEs was evaluated and compared among them and with respect to poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG13DA), which was taken as a reference for fully PEG SPEs.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/356151
URN:NBN:IT:POLIMI-356151