The issue of police discretion lies at the intersection of two fundamental poles of the legal system: on the one hand, the need to protect public order and public security, understood as essential conditions for orderly and peaceful coexistence; on the other hand, the guarantee of constitutionally guaranteed individual rights and freedoms. The tension between authority and freedom, which runs through the history of modern legal systems, has found its privileged terrain of manifestation in the police function, placing at the center of doctrinal and jurisprudential debate the problem of the limits, content, and methods of exercising a power traditionally characterized by a wide margin of discretion. This work begins with an analysis of the historical and conceptual roots of the police function, reconstructing its transformations from the absolute state to the liberal state, up to the turning point marked by the Republican Constitution of 1948. In this process, ample space is devoted to the doctrinal comparison between the main authors of the Italian legal tradition – from Orlando to Ranelletti, from Santi Romano to Virga – who have progressively developed the categories necessary to define the police as an autonomous function, marked by peculiar legal characteristics and constant interference in individual freedoms. The investigation then focuses on reconstructing the distinctive features of the security police, with particular attention to its preventive dimension. The impossibility of predetermining all possible sources of danger by law has made it inevitable to grant the public security authorities a power characterized by wide margins of discretion, both in assessing danger and in choosing the means deemed appropriate to neutralize it. However, this entails the risk of distorted or arbitrary exercise of power, which raises questions about the principles, limits, and criteria governing its exercise. In this context, the study analyzes the forms through which police discretion manifests itself in practice, focusing in particular on both police authorizations – where assessments of the good conduct, reliability, and social dangerousness of the person concerned are important – and administrative preventive measures, aimed at maximizing social defense. These areas reveal a “strongly oriented” discretion, in that it is functionalized for preventive purposes of maximum anticipation of social defense, aimed not so much (or not only) at neutralizing situations that are already harmful to the public interest, but rather at preventing at the root the emergence of conditions that could reasonably constitute a cause, or even just an occasion, for the occurrence of events – not only and not necessarily of a criminal nature – capable of disrupting orderly civil coexistence, even if only through exposure to danger to public safety and order. From this perspective, therefore, the evaluative paradigm that guides the actions of the public security authorities is based not on the ascertainment of actual damage, but on the identification of a reasonably foreseeable danger of harm to the protected public interest, in respect of which the authorities themselves are required to take action ex ante, in fulfillment of their duty to provide guarantees. Finally, the last part of the research is devoted to judicial review of the discretionary power of the Public Security Authority. In particular, it investigates the possibility of moving beyond a purely extrinsic review to an intrinsic review, capable of guaranteeing full access to the facts and ensuring effective judicial protection pursuant to Article 113 of the Constitution. An investigation into the issue of access to the facts by the administrative judge is, in fact, justified and meaningful only to the extent that it is conducted with the intention of strengthening the substantive protection of subjective legal situations affected by administrative action. This perspective implies a rethinking of the relationship between administration and jurisdiction, and places at the center of the debate the role of the administrative judge in examining the technical assessments underlying preventive action. The issue therefore remains relevant insofar as one wonders whether judicial knowledge of the facts is actually adequate to guarantee full, concrete, and effective protection of the subjective legal positions affected by public power. It is precisely the latter – the effectiveness of protection – that constitutes both the foundation and the horizon of the analysis, outlining the constitutional parameter to which the administrative process should be anchored today. Moreover, as has been observed by recent doctrine and case law, full access to the facts constitutes «a safeguard of the fullness and effectiveness of the judicial protection enshrined in Article 113 of the Constitution» and, in order to guarantee the principles of due process, the administrative judge «must have direct and complete knowledge of the facts (as well as the law) ». Starting from the perspective of the effectiveness of judicial protection, the question arises as to whether the administrative process, in its current regulatory configuration and concrete implementation, is capable of ascertaining the facts in their actual substance, and not simply in the form in which they are reconstructed or presumed by the judge. It is therefore necessary to identify immediately the essential coordinates of this theoretical premise and the related objective of guaranteeing it, so as to highlight the common thread that holds together and functionally unites the various thematic profiles covered by the following investigation, and which constitutes its unified interpretation. The analysis clearly shows that, despite significant regulatory and jurisprudential developments, the Administration's reconstruction of the facts still often enjoys a sort of privileged credit from the judge in administrative proceedings. In fact, although the traditional barrier of the unquestionability of facts has now been formally overcome, in practice a sort of «privileged reliability» continues to be accorded to the allegations of the public authority. In fact, despite the principle of equality of the parties and the constraint of allegations as a parameter of judicial cognition, the factual narrative provided by the Administration is still perceived as more reliable than that offered in court by the other parties, almost by virtue of an irrational and unjustified institutional ipse dixit. It is undeniable that, with the introduction of the code of administrative procedure, the model based exclusively on the paradigm of conformity between law and act has been definitively abandoned, giving way instead to an emphasis on the substantive administrative relationship, the expansion of means of protection, and the affirmation of the principle of full access to the facts. Yet resistance persists, linked to the peculiarities of the subjective legal situations involved, the original objective vocation of the administrative judge, and the never entirely dormant fear of overstepping the boundaries of the judicial function. In particular, this resistance is evident in cases where technical assessments are subject to scrutiny, such as those of the public security authority, which, by their very nature, pose a twofold risk for the judge: on the one hand, that of unduly substituting the administration's assessment; on the other, that of renouncing any effective scrutiny, reducing discretion to a free zone from review. In this context, while the theoretical issues related to the reconfiguration of the principle of separation of powers remain open, the lack of (or insufficient) independent verification of the facts by the administrative judge risks resulting in a deficit of judicial review and, ultimately, in a compromise of the principle of effective judicial protection. Ultimately, this work aims to offer a systematic reconstruction of police discretion, highlighting its peculiarities, aporias, and prospects for evolution, in the constant search for a balance between the needs of collective security and the protection of fundamental individual rights.
Il tema della discrezionalità di polizia si colloca all’incrocio tra due poli fondamentali dell’ordinamento: da un lato, l’esigenza di tutela dell’ordine pubblico e della sicurezza pubblica, intesi come condizioni imprescindibili per l’ordinata e pacifica convivenza; dall’altro, la garanzia dei diritti e delle libertà individuali costituzionalmente garantiti. La tensione tra autorità e libertà, che attraversa la storia degli ordinamenti moderni, ha trovato nella funzione di polizia il proprio terreno privilegiato di manifestazione, ponendo al centro del dibattito dottrinale e giurisprudenziale il problema dei limiti, dei contenuti e delle modalità di esercizio di un potere tradizionalmente connotato da un’ampia latitudine discrezionale. Il presente lavoro prende avvio da un’analisi delle radici storiche e concettuali della funzione di polizia, ricostruendone le trasformazioni dallo Stato assoluto allo Stato liberale, fino alla svolta impressa dalla Costituzione repubblicana del 1948. In tale percorso, ampio spazio è dedicato al confronto dottrinale tra i principali autori della tradizione giuridica italiana – da Orlando a Ranelletti, da Santi Romano a Virga – i quali hanno progressivamente elaborato le categorie necessarie a definire la polizia come funzione autonoma, segnata da peculiari caratteri giuridici e da una costante ingerenza nelle libertà individuali. L’indagine si concentra poi sulla ricostruzione dei tratti distintivi della polizia di sicurezza, con particolare attenzione alla sua dimensione preventiva. L’impossibilità di predeterminare normativamente tutte le possibili fonti di pericolo ha reso inevitabile riconoscere all’Autorità di pubblica sicurezza un potere connotato da ampi margini di apprezzamento, tanto nella valutazione del pericolo quanto nella scelta dei mezzi ritenuti idonei a neutralizzarlo. Ciò comporta, tuttavia, il rischio di un esercizio distorto o arbitrario del potere, che impone di interrogarsi sui principi, sui limiti e sui criteri che ne governano l’esercizio. In tale quadro, l’indagine analizza le forme attraverso le quali la discrezionalità di polizia in concreto si manifesta, soffermandosi, in particolare, sia sul piano delle autorizzazioni di polizia – ove assumono rilievo le valutazioni relative alla buona condotta, all’affidabilità ed alla pericolosità sociale dell’interessato – sia su quello delle misure di prevenzione amministrative, orientate ad anticipare al massimo livello la difesa sociale. Tali ambiti rivelano una discrezionalità “fortemente orientata”, in quanto funzionalizzata a finalità preventive di massima anticipazione della difesa sociale, volte non tanto (o non soltanto) a neutralizzare situazioni già lesive dell’interesse pubblico, quanto piuttosto ad impedire in radice il sorgere di condizioni che potrebbero ragionevolmente costituire causa, o anche solo occasione, per il verificarsi di fatti – non solo e non necessariamente di rilievo penale – idonei a turbare l’ordinata convivenza civile, mediante anche solo l’esposizione al pericolo per la sicurezza e l’ordine pubblico. In tale prospettiva, dunque, il paradigma valutativo che orienta l’azione dell’Autorità di pubblica sicurezza si fonda non sull’accertamento di un danno effettivo, ma sull’identificazione di un pericolo, ragionevolmente prevedibile, di pregiudizio all’interesse pubblico tutelato, rispetto al quale l’Autorità medesima è tenuta ad attivarsi ex ante, nell’adempimento del proprio munus di garanzia. Infine, l’ultima parte della ricerca viene dedicata al sindacato giurisdizionale esercitato sul potere discrezionale dell’Autorità di pubblica sicurezza. In particolare, si indaga la possibilità di superare un controllo meramente estrinseco per approdare ad un sindacato intrinseco, capace di garantire un pieno accesso al fatto e di assicurare un’effettiva tutela giurisdizionale ai sensi dell’art. 113 Cost. Un’indagine sul tema dell’accesso al fatto da parte del giudice amministrativo trova, infatti, giustificazione ed al contempo senso solo nella misura in cui venga condotta con l’intento di rafforzare la tutela sostanziale delle situazioni giuridiche soggettive incise dall’azione amministrativa. Tale prospettiva implica un ripensamento del rapporto tra amministrazione e giurisdizione, e pone al centro del dibattito il ruolo del giudice amministrativo nell’esame delle valutazioni tecniche poste a fondamento dell’azione di prevenzione. Il tema, pertanto, resta attuale nella misura in cui ci si interroghi se la cognizione giudiziale del fatto sia effettivamente adeguata a garantire una tutela piena, concreta ed effettiva delle posizioni giuridiche soggettive incise dal potere pubblico. Proprio quest’ultima – l’effettività della tutela – costituisce, dunque, tanto il fondamento quanto l’orizzonte dell’analisi, delineando il parametro costituzionale cui ancorare oggi il processo amministrativo. D’altronde, come è stato osservato dalla dottrina e dalla giurisprudenza più recente, il pieno accesso al fatto costituisce «presidio della pienezza e della effettività della tutela giurisdizionale sancita dall’art. 113 Cost.» e, per garantire i canoni del giusto processo, il giudice amministrativo «deve conoscere direttamente e completamente del fatto (come del diritto)». Muovendo dalla prospettiva dell’effettività della tutela giurisdizionale, si impone dunque l’interrogativo circa la capacità del processo amministrativo, nella sua attuale configurazione normativa e concreta attuazione, di consentire l’accertamento del fatto nella sua reale consistenza, e non semplicemente nella forma in cui esso viene ricostruito o presunto dal giudice. Occorre, pertanto, individuare sin da subito le coordinate essenziali di tale premessa teorica e del correlato obiettivo di garanzia, così da rendere evidente il filo conduttore che tiene insieme ed unisce funzionalmente i diversi profili tematici oggetto dell’indagine che segue, e che ne costituisce la chiave di lettura unitaria. Dall’analisi condotta emerge con chiarezza come, nonostante le importanti evoluzioni normative e giurisprudenziali, la ricostruzione dei fatti da parte dell’Amministrazione continui ancora spesso a godere, nel processo amministrativo, di una sorta di credito privilegiato da parte del giudice. Infatti, sebbene si sia oggi formalmente superata la tradizionale barriera dell’insindacabilità del fatto, permane in concreto una sorta di «attendibilità privilegiata» riconosciuta alle allegazioni dell’Autorità pubblica. In effetti, pur in presenza del principio di parità delle parti e del vincolo delle allegazioni quale parametro della cognizione giudiziale, la narrazione fattuale effettuata dall’Amministrazione viene ancora percepita come più attendibile rispetto a quella offerta in giudizio dalle altre parti, quasi in virtù di un irrazionale quanto ingiustificato ipse dixit istituzionale. È innegabile che, con l’introduzione del codice del processo amministrativo, si sia definitivamente abbandonato il modello fondato esclusivamente sul paradigma della conformità tra norma ed atto, valorizzando invece il rapporto amministrativo sostanziale, l’ampliamento degli strumenti di tutela e l’affermazione del principio del pieno accesso al fatto. Eppure, persistono resistenze legate alla peculiarità delle situazioni giuridiche soggettive coinvolte, all’originaria vocazione oggettiva del giudice amministrativo ed al timore, mai del tutto sopito, di travalicare i confini della funzione giurisdizionale. In particolare, tali resistenze si rivelano nei casi in cui siano oggetto di scrutinio valutazioni di carattere tecnico, come quelle dell’Autorità di pubblica sicurezza, le quali, proprio per la loro natura, pongono il giudice di fronte ad un duplice rischio: da un lato, quello di operare un’indebita sostituzione valutativa rispetto all’Amministrazione; dall’altro, quello di rinunciare ad ogni scrutinio effettivo, riducendo la discrezionalità ad una zona franca dal sindacato. In tale quadro, pur restando aperti i nodi teorici connessi alla riconfigurazione del principio di separazione dei poteri, la mancata (o insufficiente) verifica autonoma del fatto da parte del giudice amministrativo rischia di tradursi in un deficit di controllo giurisdizionale e, in ultima analisi, in una compromissione del principio di effettività della tutela giustiziale. In definitiva, il presente lavoro si propone di offrire una ricostruzione sistematica della discrezionalità di polizia, mettendone in luce le peculiarità, le aporie e le prospettive di evoluzione, nella costante ricerca di un equilibrio tra le esigenze di sicurezza collettiva e la salvaguardia dei diritti individuali fondamentali.
LA DISCREZIONALITA' DI POLIZIA: EVOLUZIONE STORICA, VALUTAZIONE DEL PERICOLO E SINDACABILITA' GIURISDIZIONALE
Anzaldi, Mauro
2026
Abstract
The issue of police discretion lies at the intersection of two fundamental poles of the legal system: on the one hand, the need to protect public order and public security, understood as essential conditions for orderly and peaceful coexistence; on the other hand, the guarantee of constitutionally guaranteed individual rights and freedoms. The tension between authority and freedom, which runs through the history of modern legal systems, has found its privileged terrain of manifestation in the police function, placing at the center of doctrinal and jurisprudential debate the problem of the limits, content, and methods of exercising a power traditionally characterized by a wide margin of discretion. This work begins with an analysis of the historical and conceptual roots of the police function, reconstructing its transformations from the absolute state to the liberal state, up to the turning point marked by the Republican Constitution of 1948. In this process, ample space is devoted to the doctrinal comparison between the main authors of the Italian legal tradition – from Orlando to Ranelletti, from Santi Romano to Virga – who have progressively developed the categories necessary to define the police as an autonomous function, marked by peculiar legal characteristics and constant interference in individual freedoms. The investigation then focuses on reconstructing the distinctive features of the security police, with particular attention to its preventive dimension. The impossibility of predetermining all possible sources of danger by law has made it inevitable to grant the public security authorities a power characterized by wide margins of discretion, both in assessing danger and in choosing the means deemed appropriate to neutralize it. However, this entails the risk of distorted or arbitrary exercise of power, which raises questions about the principles, limits, and criteria governing its exercise. In this context, the study analyzes the forms through which police discretion manifests itself in practice, focusing in particular on both police authorizations – where assessments of the good conduct, reliability, and social dangerousness of the person concerned are important – and administrative preventive measures, aimed at maximizing social defense. These areas reveal a “strongly oriented” discretion, in that it is functionalized for preventive purposes of maximum anticipation of social defense, aimed not so much (or not only) at neutralizing situations that are already harmful to the public interest, but rather at preventing at the root the emergence of conditions that could reasonably constitute a cause, or even just an occasion, for the occurrence of events – not only and not necessarily of a criminal nature – capable of disrupting orderly civil coexistence, even if only through exposure to danger to public safety and order. From this perspective, therefore, the evaluative paradigm that guides the actions of the public security authorities is based not on the ascertainment of actual damage, but on the identification of a reasonably foreseeable danger of harm to the protected public interest, in respect of which the authorities themselves are required to take action ex ante, in fulfillment of their duty to provide guarantees. Finally, the last part of the research is devoted to judicial review of the discretionary power of the Public Security Authority. In particular, it investigates the possibility of moving beyond a purely extrinsic review to an intrinsic review, capable of guaranteeing full access to the facts and ensuring effective judicial protection pursuant to Article 113 of the Constitution. An investigation into the issue of access to the facts by the administrative judge is, in fact, justified and meaningful only to the extent that it is conducted with the intention of strengthening the substantive protection of subjective legal situations affected by administrative action. This perspective implies a rethinking of the relationship between administration and jurisdiction, and places at the center of the debate the role of the administrative judge in examining the technical assessments underlying preventive action. The issue therefore remains relevant insofar as one wonders whether judicial knowledge of the facts is actually adequate to guarantee full, concrete, and effective protection of the subjective legal positions affected by public power. It is precisely the latter – the effectiveness of protection – that constitutes both the foundation and the horizon of the analysis, outlining the constitutional parameter to which the administrative process should be anchored today. Moreover, as has been observed by recent doctrine and case law, full access to the facts constitutes «a safeguard of the fullness and effectiveness of the judicial protection enshrined in Article 113 of the Constitution» and, in order to guarantee the principles of due process, the administrative judge «must have direct and complete knowledge of the facts (as well as the law) ». Starting from the perspective of the effectiveness of judicial protection, the question arises as to whether the administrative process, in its current regulatory configuration and concrete implementation, is capable of ascertaining the facts in their actual substance, and not simply in the form in which they are reconstructed or presumed by the judge. It is therefore necessary to identify immediately the essential coordinates of this theoretical premise and the related objective of guaranteeing it, so as to highlight the common thread that holds together and functionally unites the various thematic profiles covered by the following investigation, and which constitutes its unified interpretation. The analysis clearly shows that, despite significant regulatory and jurisprudential developments, the Administration's reconstruction of the facts still often enjoys a sort of privileged credit from the judge in administrative proceedings. In fact, although the traditional barrier of the unquestionability of facts has now been formally overcome, in practice a sort of «privileged reliability» continues to be accorded to the allegations of the public authority. In fact, despite the principle of equality of the parties and the constraint of allegations as a parameter of judicial cognition, the factual narrative provided by the Administration is still perceived as more reliable than that offered in court by the other parties, almost by virtue of an irrational and unjustified institutional ipse dixit. It is undeniable that, with the introduction of the code of administrative procedure, the model based exclusively on the paradigm of conformity between law and act has been definitively abandoned, giving way instead to an emphasis on the substantive administrative relationship, the expansion of means of protection, and the affirmation of the principle of full access to the facts. Yet resistance persists, linked to the peculiarities of the subjective legal situations involved, the original objective vocation of the administrative judge, and the never entirely dormant fear of overstepping the boundaries of the judicial function. In particular, this resistance is evident in cases where technical assessments are subject to scrutiny, such as those of the public security authority, which, by their very nature, pose a twofold risk for the judge: on the one hand, that of unduly substituting the administration's assessment; on the other, that of renouncing any effective scrutiny, reducing discretion to a free zone from review. In this context, while the theoretical issues related to the reconfiguration of the principle of separation of powers remain open, the lack of (or insufficient) independent verification of the facts by the administrative judge risks resulting in a deficit of judicial review and, ultimately, in a compromise of the principle of effective judicial protection. Ultimately, this work aims to offer a systematic reconstruction of police discretion, highlighting its peculiarities, aporias, and prospects for evolution, in the constant search for a balance between the needs of collective security and the protection of fundamental individual rights.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/358251
URN:NBN:IT:UNICATT-358251