Football performance is characterized by intermittent, multidirectional activities that require players to repeatedly perform high-intensity accelerations, decelerations, and changes of direction. These actions impose substantial mechanical and metabolic demands and are considered key determinants of performance and injury risk. In recent years, Global Positioning System (GPS) technology integrated with Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) has become the most widely used tool for monitoring external load in football. Despite their extensive adoption in both research and applied settings, important concerns remain regarding the validity, reliability and responsiveness of the metrics derived from these technologies, particularly those related to high-intensity acceleration and deceleration (HIAD). The overarching aim of this doctoral thesis was to enhance the methodological understanding of GPS and IMU based monitoring in football, with a specific focus on the validation process and inter-unit reliability of HIAD metrics. The thesis is structured into three complementary investigations. First, a systematic review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 and COSMIN guidelines to critically evaluate the methodological quality and statistical approaches used in studies assessing the validity, reliability and responsiveness of GPS and IMU metrics related to HIAD. The review revealed a scarcity of high-quality studies, with most investigations showing doubtful or inadequate methodological quality, particularly for reliability and measurement error, and a complete absence of studies addressing responsiveness. These findings highlighted substantial gaps in the current validation literature and the need for standardized protocols and rigorous methodological designs. The second study examined the inter-unit reliability of Catapult Vector S7 GPS and IMU devices under controlled, football simulated movement conditions. Four devices were mounted on an electric golf cart and tested across three standardized drills simulating continuous running, straight-line accelerations and decelerations, and intermittent high-intensity actions. Both relative (intraclass correlation coefficients) and absolute (typical error expressed as a % of coefficient of variation) reliability were assessed, alongside signal quality indicators (horizontal dilution of precision and number of satellites). The results demonstrated generally good to excellent relative reliability for several distance and speed-related metrics, but greater heterogeneity and reduced agreement for acceleration and deceleration derived variables, emphasizing the sensitivity of these measures to signal quality and movement characteristics. The third study evaluated inter-unit reliability of the same GPS devices in ecological conditions during 33 regular football training sessions in elite youth players. The study investigated the absolute and relative reliability between paired units across a range of external load metrics, including total distance, high-speed running, accelerations, decelerations, metabolic power, and PlayerLoad. While some metrics showed acceptable reliability, substantial between-unit heterogeneity was observed for HIAD measures, reinforcing concerns regarding the interchangeability of devices in applied contexts. Overall, this thesis provides a comprehensive methodological appraisal of GPS and IMU technologies for monitoring high-intensity actions in football. The findings underline that, although these systems offer valuable insights into players’ external load, caution is required when interpreting acceleration- and deceleration-related metrics, especially when comparing data across devices. The work highlights the urgent need for high-quality validation studies, standardized testing protocols, and transparent reporting to ensure that practitioners and researchers can make informed, data-driven decisions in performance monitoring and training prescription.
La prestazione nel calcio è caratterizzata da attività intermittenti e multidirezionali che richiedono ai giocatori di eseguire ripetutamente accelerazioni, decelerazioni e cambi di direzione ad alta intensità. Queste azioni impongono elevati carichi meccanici e metabolici e rappresentano determinanti fondamentali sia della performance sia del rischio di infortunio. Negli ultimi anni, i sistemi di Global Positioning System (GPS) integrati con Sensori inerziali e accelerometri (IMU device) sono diventati lo strumento più utilizzato per il monitoraggio del carico esterno nel calcio. Tuttavia, nonostante la loro ampia diffusione in ambito applicativo e scientifico, permangono importanti criticità riguardo alla validità, ripetibilità e responsività delle metriche, in particolare quelle relative alle accelerazioni e decelerazioni ad alta intensità (HIAD). L’obiettivo generale di questa tesi di dottorato è stato quello di approfondire gli aspetti metodologici legati all’utilizzo delle tecnologie GPS e IMU nel calcio, con un focus specifico sul processo di validazione e sulla ripetibilità inter-unità delle metriche HIAD. La tesi si articola in tre studi complementari. In primo luogo, è stata condotta una revisione sistematica della letteratura secondo le linee guida PRISMA 2020 e COSMIN, finalizzata a valutare criticamente la qualità metodologica e gli approcci statistici utilizzati negli studi che hanno indagato validità, affidabilità e responsività delle metriche GPS e IMU. I risultati hanno evidenziato una marcata carenza di studi di alta qualità, con la maggior parte delle ricerche caratterizzate da qualità metodologica dubbia o inadeguata, soprattutto per quanto riguarda la ripetibilità, e una totale assenza di studi sulla responsività. Tali evidenze sottolineano rilevanti lacune nella letteratura e la necessità di protocolli standardizzati e disegni sperimentali più rigorosi. Il secondo studio ha analizzato l’affidabilità inter-unità dei dispositivi Catapult Vector S7 in condizioni controllate, mediante tre esercitazioni standardizzate che simulavano richieste locomotorie tipiche del calcio (corsa continua, accelerazioni e decelerazioni in linea retta, azioni intermittenti ad alta intensità). I dispositivi sono stati montati su un veicolo elettrico e sono stati valutati sia la ripetibilità relativa (valutata tramite ICC) sia quella assoluta (valutata con Typical error espresso in % del coefficiente di variazione), considerando anche la qualità del segnale (numero di satelliti connessi e indice HDOP). I risultati hanno mostrato una buona–eccellente ripetibilità relativa per diverse metriche di distanza e velocità, ma una maggiore eterogeneità per le misure di accelerazione e decelerazione, evidenziando la sensibilità di tali parametri alle caratteristiche del movimento e alla qualità del segnale. Il terzo studio ha valutato la ripetibilità inter-unità in condizioni ecologiche durante 33 sedute di allenamento di una squadra élite giovanile. Sono state analizzate diverse metriche di carico esterno, tra cui distanza totale, high-speed running, accelerazioni, decelerazioni, potenza metabolica e PlayerLoad. Sebbene alcune variabili abbiano mostrato un livello accettabile di ripetibilità, le metriche HIAD hanno evidenziato una eterogeneità rilevante tra dispositivi, ponendo interrogativi sull’intercambiabilità delle unità nella pratica quotidiana. Nel complesso, questa tesi fornisce una valutazione metodologica approfondita dell’uso dei GPS e IMU per il monitoraggio delle azioni ad alta intensità nel calcio. I risultati indicano che, sebbene tali tecnologie offrano informazioni preziose sul carico esterno, è necessario interpretare con cautela le metriche di accelerazione e decelerazione, soprattutto quando si confrontano dati provenienti da dispositivi diversi. Viene inoltre evidenziata l’urgenza di studi di validazione di alta qualità, protocolli standardizzati e una maggiore trasparenza metodologica per supportare decisioni realmente evidence based nel monitoraggio della performance e nella programmazione dell’allenamento.
Methodological aspects of monitoring high intensity actions through global positioning systems in football
DI CLAUDIO, CHRISTIAN
2026
Abstract
Football performance is characterized by intermittent, multidirectional activities that require players to repeatedly perform high-intensity accelerations, decelerations, and changes of direction. These actions impose substantial mechanical and metabolic demands and are considered key determinants of performance and injury risk. In recent years, Global Positioning System (GPS) technology integrated with Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) has become the most widely used tool for monitoring external load in football. Despite their extensive adoption in both research and applied settings, important concerns remain regarding the validity, reliability and responsiveness of the metrics derived from these technologies, particularly those related to high-intensity acceleration and deceleration (HIAD). The overarching aim of this doctoral thesis was to enhance the methodological understanding of GPS and IMU based monitoring in football, with a specific focus on the validation process and inter-unit reliability of HIAD metrics. The thesis is structured into three complementary investigations. First, a systematic review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 and COSMIN guidelines to critically evaluate the methodological quality and statistical approaches used in studies assessing the validity, reliability and responsiveness of GPS and IMU metrics related to HIAD. The review revealed a scarcity of high-quality studies, with most investigations showing doubtful or inadequate methodological quality, particularly for reliability and measurement error, and a complete absence of studies addressing responsiveness. These findings highlighted substantial gaps in the current validation literature and the need for standardized protocols and rigorous methodological designs. The second study examined the inter-unit reliability of Catapult Vector S7 GPS and IMU devices under controlled, football simulated movement conditions. Four devices were mounted on an electric golf cart and tested across three standardized drills simulating continuous running, straight-line accelerations and decelerations, and intermittent high-intensity actions. Both relative (intraclass correlation coefficients) and absolute (typical error expressed as a % of coefficient of variation) reliability were assessed, alongside signal quality indicators (horizontal dilution of precision and number of satellites). The results demonstrated generally good to excellent relative reliability for several distance and speed-related metrics, but greater heterogeneity and reduced agreement for acceleration and deceleration derived variables, emphasizing the sensitivity of these measures to signal quality and movement characteristics. The third study evaluated inter-unit reliability of the same GPS devices in ecological conditions during 33 regular football training sessions in elite youth players. The study investigated the absolute and relative reliability between paired units across a range of external load metrics, including total distance, high-speed running, accelerations, decelerations, metabolic power, and PlayerLoad. While some metrics showed acceptable reliability, substantial between-unit heterogeneity was observed for HIAD measures, reinforcing concerns regarding the interchangeability of devices in applied contexts. Overall, this thesis provides a comprehensive methodological appraisal of GPS and IMU technologies for monitoring high-intensity actions in football. The findings underline that, although these systems offer valuable insights into players’ external load, caution is required when interpreting acceleration- and deceleration-related metrics, especially when comparing data across devices. The work highlights the urgent need for high-quality validation studies, standardized testing protocols, and transparent reporting to ensure that practitioners and researchers can make informed, data-driven decisions in performance monitoring and training prescription.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/359826
URN:NBN:IT:UNIROMA4-359826