Ecosystem service generation in urban settings: Implications for strategic planning of Green Infrastructure

The EU Green Infrastructure Strategy highlights the need to integrate natural and semi-natural areas into urban systems to restore ecological functionality and optimise ecosystem service provision. This study investigated how urban green spaces function in complex socio-ecological systems, where green spaces interact with abiotic, biotic, and human-induced drivers. Spatial configuration and management emerged as key leverage points, capable of enhancing or constraining service generation. Proximity to other urban green spaces was a major driver, consistently enhancing service generation, often by mediating vegetation and stress responses. Yet, vegetation type modulated these dynamics. Herb-dominated patches showed a highly interconnected structure, with configuration and disturbance cascading through vegetation structure and stress to affect services. Tree-dominated patches were more modular, with soil properties and, to a lesser extent, configuration emerging as main drivers, while disturbance and vegetation had minor roles. These contrasts suggest that service generation mechanisms vary with vegetation type, requiring vegetation-specific planning and management strategies. Finally, patch-level analysis proved crucial, as class- or landscape-level assessments risk to obscure key processes and the contribution of individual urban green spaces. Overall, the study offers operational insights for the strategic planning of multifunctional and resilient urban green infrastructure.