Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is an essential redox-active lipid whose biosynthesis requires head and tail production, fusion and maturation, which requires several COQ proteins assembling in a biosynthetic metabolon. Although the enzymatic sequence has been almost completely elucidated across model organisms, key mechanistic details, particularly those governing the final head-group modification steps and the organisation of the pathway into a metabolon, have remained insufficiently understood. This thesis addresses these outstanding questions through an integrated biochemical, structural, and computational investigation, enabled by the strategic application of ancestral sequence reconstruction (ASR) to generate stable recombinant variants of COQ proteins. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the current state of knowledge on CoQ biosynthesis, spanning bacteria, yeast, plants and metazoans, and summarises the emerging understanding of biosynthetic metabolons as dynamic assemblies that enhance reaction efficiency via substrate channelling. The introduction also outlines theoretical and technical aspects of ASR, establishing the methodological foundation for the experimental work that follows. Building on this framework, Chapter 2 presents the in vitro characterisation of the final head-group decoration steps of CoQ biosynthesis. Using stabilised ancestral proteins, this chapter identifies and mechanistically defines the roles of COQ4 and COQ6 in C1-decarboxylation and hydroxylation, respectively. It further demonstrates that COQ6 relies not on direct NAD(P)H-driven flavin reduction but instead on a mitochondrial electron-transfer chain involving FDX2 and FDXR. Importantly, these studies reveal that recombinant COQ enzymes assemble into a soluble metabolon and that COQ8 enhances CoQ yields by streamlining the pathway through intermediate channelling. Chapter 3 investigates the biophysical principles governing metabolon organisation. Through collaboration with Professor Shakhnovich (Harvard) and Professor Heck (Utrecht), quantitative interaction measurements and mass-spectrometric profiling are integrated with coarse-grained simulations. These analyses show that the COQ enzymes form a non-stoichiometric condensate composed of discrete sub-complexes whose integrity is essential for the functional advantage of metabolon formation. This work provides a conceptual shift from classical views of linear metabolic pathways, highlighting the dynamic, collective behaviour of multi-enzyme assemblies. Finally, Chapter 4 elucidates the mechanism by which COQ8 operates within the metabolon. The data support a model in which COQ8 acts as an ATPase-driven transporter that extracts early-stage intermediates from the inner mitochondrial membrane and delivers them to the metabolon. Structural and mutational analyses demonstrate that nucleotide binding regulates the accessibility of the intermediate-binding pocket, thereby coupling ATP hydrolysis to cargo release. This mechanism offers insight into why COQ8A/B deficiency leads to CoQ depletion and provides an evolutionary rationale for the prenylation-first architecture of the pathway.
Il Coenzima Q (CoQ) è un lipide redox-attivo essenziale, la cui biosintesi richiede la produzione separata delle porzioni testa e coda, la loro fusione e successiva maturazione, processi che coinvolgono diverse proteine COQ organizzate in un metabolone biosintetico. Sebbene la sequenza enzimatica della via sia stata quasi completamente chiarita nei principali organismi modello, rimangono ancora poco compresi alcuni aspetti meccanicistici fondamentali, in particolare quelli che regolano le fasi finali di modifica della testa benzochinonica e l’organizzazione del pathway in un metabolone. Questa tesi affronta tali questioni irrisolte attraverso un’indagine integrata biochimica, strutturale e computazionale, resa possibile dall’applicazione strategica della ricostruzione di sequenze ancestrali (ASR) per generare varianti ricombinanti stabili delle proteine COQ. Il Capitolo 1 fornisce una panoramica dello stato dell’arte sulla biosintesi del CoQ in batteri, lieviti, piante e metazoi, e riassume le attuali conoscenze sui metaboloni biosintetici, assemblaggi dinamici in grado di aumentare l’efficienza catalitica mediante canalizzazione dei substrati. L’introduzione presenta inoltre gli aspetti teorici e tecnici dell’ASR, ponendo le basi metodologiche per il lavoro sperimentale dei capitoli successivi. Proseguendo su queste basi, il Capitolo 2 descrive la caratterizzazione in vitro delle fasi finali di decorazione della testa benzochinonica del CoQ. Utilizzando proteine ancestrali stabilizzate, il capitolo identifica e definisce meccanicisticamente i ruoli di COQ4 e COQ6 rispettivamente nella decarbossilazione in C1 e nell’ossidrilazione. Viene inoltre dimostrato che COQ6 non riduce il suo cofattore flavinico tramite NAD(P)H, ma sfrutta invece una catena di trasporto elettronico mitocondriale composta da FDX2 e FDXR. In modo significativo, tali studi rivelano che le proteine COQ ricombinanti si assemblano in un metabolone solubile e che COQ8 ne incrementa le rese facilitando la canalizzazione degli intermedi. Il Capitolo 3 indaga i principi biofisici che governano l’organizzazione del metabolone. In collaborazione con il Professor Shakhnovich (Harvard) e il Professor Heck (Utrecht), misure di interazione quantitative e analisi di spettrometria di massa sono integrate con simulazioni coarse-grained. Queste analisi mostrano che le proteine COQ formano un condensato non stechiometrico composto da sub-complessi discreti, la cui integrità è essenziale per il vantaggio funzionale del metabolone. Questo lavoro introduce un cambiamento concettuale rispetto alla visione classica delle vie metaboliche lineari, mettendo in luce il comportamento dinamico e collettivo delle assemblee multi-enzimatiche. Infine, il Capitolo 4 chiarisce il meccanismo con cui COQ8 opera all’interno del metabolone. I dati supportano un modello secondo il quale COQ8 funge da trasportatore ATPasico che estrae gli intermedi iniziali dalla membrana mitocondriale interna e li consegna al metabolone. Analisi strutturali e mutazionali dimostrano che il legame del nucleotide regola l’accessibilità della tasca per gli intermedi, accoppiando così l’idrolisi dell’ATP al rilascio del cargo. Questo meccanismo spiega perché la perdita di funzione di COQ8A/B comporti un deficit di CoQ e fornisce una giustificazione evolutiva per l’architettura del pathway che prevede la prenilazione come primo passo.
Quando gli enzimi uniscono le forze: affrontare le basi molecolari della biosintesi del Coenzima Q tramite la ricostruzione in vitro di un metabolone COQ ancestrale
GOTTINGER, ANDREA
2026
Abstract
Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is an essential redox-active lipid whose biosynthesis requires head and tail production, fusion and maturation, which requires several COQ proteins assembling in a biosynthetic metabolon. Although the enzymatic sequence has been almost completely elucidated across model organisms, key mechanistic details, particularly those governing the final head-group modification steps and the organisation of the pathway into a metabolon, have remained insufficiently understood. This thesis addresses these outstanding questions through an integrated biochemical, structural, and computational investigation, enabled by the strategic application of ancestral sequence reconstruction (ASR) to generate stable recombinant variants of COQ proteins. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the current state of knowledge on CoQ biosynthesis, spanning bacteria, yeast, plants and metazoans, and summarises the emerging understanding of biosynthetic metabolons as dynamic assemblies that enhance reaction efficiency via substrate channelling. The introduction also outlines theoretical and technical aspects of ASR, establishing the methodological foundation for the experimental work that follows. Building on this framework, Chapter 2 presents the in vitro characterisation of the final head-group decoration steps of CoQ biosynthesis. Using stabilised ancestral proteins, this chapter identifies and mechanistically defines the roles of COQ4 and COQ6 in C1-decarboxylation and hydroxylation, respectively. It further demonstrates that COQ6 relies not on direct NAD(P)H-driven flavin reduction but instead on a mitochondrial electron-transfer chain involving FDX2 and FDXR. Importantly, these studies reveal that recombinant COQ enzymes assemble into a soluble metabolon and that COQ8 enhances CoQ yields by streamlining the pathway through intermediate channelling. Chapter 3 investigates the biophysical principles governing metabolon organisation. Through collaboration with Professor Shakhnovich (Harvard) and Professor Heck (Utrecht), quantitative interaction measurements and mass-spectrometric profiling are integrated with coarse-grained simulations. These analyses show that the COQ enzymes form a non-stoichiometric condensate composed of discrete sub-complexes whose integrity is essential for the functional advantage of metabolon formation. This work provides a conceptual shift from classical views of linear metabolic pathways, highlighting the dynamic, collective behaviour of multi-enzyme assemblies. Finally, Chapter 4 elucidates the mechanism by which COQ8 operates within the metabolon. The data support a model in which COQ8 acts as an ATPase-driven transporter that extracts early-stage intermediates from the inner mitochondrial membrane and delivers them to the metabolon. Structural and mutational analyses demonstrate that nucleotide binding regulates the accessibility of the intermediate-binding pocket, thereby coupling ATP hydrolysis to cargo release. This mechanism offers insight into why COQ8A/B deficiency leads to CoQ depletion and provides an evolutionary rationale for the prenylation-first architecture of the pathway.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/361606
URN:NBN:IT:IUSSPAVIA-361606