The development of biotherapeutics, including monoclonal antibodies, antibody fragments, and immuno-cytokines, has transformed the treatment landscape for a wide range of diseases, including cancer. These molecules offer high specificity and potency; however, their structural complexity and heterogeneous behavior across biological matrices pose considerable analytical challenges during both discovery and development stages. In this context, Mass spectrometry (MS) has progressively emerged as a powerful tool, complementing and, in many cases, surpassing ligand-based assays. Unlike classical immunoassays, MS-based methods provide molecular-level information, enable multiplexing, and reduce dependency on specific reagents. Thus, they represent a versatile platform for both qualitative and quantitative investigations of biotherapeutics. The sensitivity and selectivity of MS-based proteomics approaches are particularly valuable in this context. They enable the identification of sequence variants, post-translational modifications, and degradation products, as well as the accurate quantification of drug levels in plasma and tissues. However, these advantages are tempered by analytical challenges such as matrix interferences, low analyte concentration, and sample preparation variability. To overcome these limitations, strategies such as careful selection of signature peptides, the use of stable-isotope-labelled (SIL) internal standards, the use of enrichment or depletion workflows, and the application of targeted acquisition methods such as SRM and PRM have been developed. This thesis describes the development and application of mass spectrometry-based methods for the qualitative characterization and ex-vivo quantification of monoclonal antibodies, antibody fragments, and immuno-cytokines in complex biological matrices. A first area of focus concerns the structural characterization of biotherapeutics, with particular attention to sequence variants. These unintended amino acid substitutions can arise during the production of recombinant proteins due to DNA mutations or transcriptional and translational errors. Even when present at very low abundances, sequence variants may affect product stability, efficacy, or immunogenicity, making their detection and quantification a critical quality attribute for regulatory approval and clinical use. Two GMP-grade products were analyzed, and results showed that sequence variant levels were low and consistent across batches and manufacturing sites, confirming manufacturing robustness and product reliability. Another aspect explored is the role of mass spectrometry in mechanistic studies of biopharmaceuticals. By implementing bottom-up proteomics workflows, it was possible to characterize changes in protein expression during therapy experiments in preclinical models. Here, mass spectrometry provided insights into how the treatments can modulate signalling pathways, interact with the tumor microenvironment, or synergize with other drugs. Finally, dedicated workflows for accurate quantification of therapeutic antibodies in complex matrices have been developed. By combining enrichment strategies, stable-isotope-labelled internal standards, and advanced acquisition methods, a sensitive and reproducible method was developed. Such a method was then applied to biodistribution studies and validated against well-established radiolabel-based techniques. By taking all projects together, this elaborate demonstrates the versatility of mass spectrometry as both a qualitative and quantitative platform. From ensuring product quality and stability to elucidating mechanisms of action to mapping the biodistribution of novel drug candidates in preclinical models, mass spectrometry can deliver comprehensive analytical solutions in biotherapeutics research.
Lo sviluppo di farmaci biotecnologici come anticorpi monoclonali, frammenti di anticorpi e immuno-citochine ha trasformato il panorama terapeutico di un’ampia gamma di patologie, incluso il cancro. Queste molecole offrono un’elevata specificità ed efficacia. Tuttavia, la loro complessità strutturale e il comportamento eterogeneo in diverse matrici biologiche pongono sfide analitiche significative durante il loro sviluppo. In questo contesto, la spettrometria di massa si è progressivamente affermata come uno strumento in grado di integrare e, in molti casi, superare i saggi immunoenzimatici. Infatti, la spettrometria di massa rappresenta una piattaforma versatile per indagini sia qualitative sia quantitative. La sensibilità e la selettività di questi approcci sono particolarmente rilevanti, poiché consentono l’identificazione di varianti di sequenza, modifiche post-traduzionali e prodotti di degradazione, oltre a una quantificazione accurata del farmaco in plasma e in tessuti. Tuttavia, tali vantaggi sono bilanciati da difficoltà analitiche come interferenze della matrice, basse concentrazioni degli analiti e variabilità nella preparazione dei campioni. Per superare queste limitazioni, negli anni sono state sviluppate strategie come l’attenta selezione dei peptidi, l’uso di standard interni marcati con isotopi stabili, l’impiego di metodi di arricchimento o di deplezione, nonché di strategie di acquisizione mirata come SRM e PRM. Questa tesi descrive lo sviluppo e l’applicazione di metodi di spettrometria di massa per la caratterizzazione qualitativa e la quantificazione ex-vivo di anticorpi monoclonali, frammenti di anticorpi e immuno-citochine in matrici biologiche. Una prima tematica affrontata riguarda la caratterizzazione strutturale dei biofarmaci, con particolare attenzione alle varianti di sequenza. Queste sostituzioni amminoacidiche indesiderate possono insorgere durante la produzione di proteine ricombinanti a causa di mutazioni del DNA o di errori di trascrizione e di traduzione. Anche a concentrazioni molto basse, le varianti di sequenza possono influenzare la stabilità, l’efficacia o l’immunogenicità del prodotto, rendendo la loro rilevazione e quantificazione un attributo critico di qualità ai fini della regolamentazione e dell’uso clinico. Due molecole prodotte in ambiente GMP sono state analizzate e i risultati hanno mostrato che i livelli delle varianti di sequenza sono bassi e coerenti tra diversi lotti e siti di produzione, confermando la robustezza del processo produttivo e l’affidabilità del prodotto. Un altro aspetto esplorato è il ruolo della spettrometria di massa negli studi sul meccanismo d’azione dei biofarmaci. Grazie all’analisi proteomica è stato possibile caratterizzare le variazioni nell’espressione di innumerevoli proteine indotte dal farmaco in modelli preclinici. La spettrometria di massa ha fornito informazioni su come i trattamenti possano modulare la trasduzione del segnale, interagire con il microambiente tumorale o creare sinergia con altri farmaci. Infine, è stato sviluppato un metodo dedicato alla quantificazione accurata di anticorpi terapeutici in matrici complesse. Combinando strategie di arricchimento, standard interni marcati con isotopi stabili e metodi avanzati di acquisizione dello spettrometro di massa, è stato possibile sviluppare un metodo sensibile e riproducibile. Tale metodo è stato poi applicato a studi di biodistribuzione e convalidato confrontandolo con tecniche basate sulla radiomarcatura. Considerando tutti i progetti, questo elaborato dimostra la versatilità della spettrometria di massa come piattaforma sia qualitativa sia quantitativa. Dall’assicurare la qualità e la stabilità del prodotto, all’elucidare i meccanismi d’azione, fino a determinare la biodistribuzione di nuove molecole in modelli preclinici, la spettrometria di massa può fornire soluzioni analitiche complete nella ricerca e sviluppo di biofarmaci.
Approcci di spettrometria di massa per la caratterizzazione della struttura, del meccanismo d’azione e della biodistribuzione ex-vivo di farmaci biotecnologici
RAVAZZA, DOMENICO
2026
Abstract
The development of biotherapeutics, including monoclonal antibodies, antibody fragments, and immuno-cytokines, has transformed the treatment landscape for a wide range of diseases, including cancer. These molecules offer high specificity and potency; however, their structural complexity and heterogeneous behavior across biological matrices pose considerable analytical challenges during both discovery and development stages. In this context, Mass spectrometry (MS) has progressively emerged as a powerful tool, complementing and, in many cases, surpassing ligand-based assays. Unlike classical immunoassays, MS-based methods provide molecular-level information, enable multiplexing, and reduce dependency on specific reagents. Thus, they represent a versatile platform for both qualitative and quantitative investigations of biotherapeutics. The sensitivity and selectivity of MS-based proteomics approaches are particularly valuable in this context. They enable the identification of sequence variants, post-translational modifications, and degradation products, as well as the accurate quantification of drug levels in plasma and tissues. However, these advantages are tempered by analytical challenges such as matrix interferences, low analyte concentration, and sample preparation variability. To overcome these limitations, strategies such as careful selection of signature peptides, the use of stable-isotope-labelled (SIL) internal standards, the use of enrichment or depletion workflows, and the application of targeted acquisition methods such as SRM and PRM have been developed. This thesis describes the development and application of mass spectrometry-based methods for the qualitative characterization and ex-vivo quantification of monoclonal antibodies, antibody fragments, and immuno-cytokines in complex biological matrices. A first area of focus concerns the structural characterization of biotherapeutics, with particular attention to sequence variants. These unintended amino acid substitutions can arise during the production of recombinant proteins due to DNA mutations or transcriptional and translational errors. Even when present at very low abundances, sequence variants may affect product stability, efficacy, or immunogenicity, making their detection and quantification a critical quality attribute for regulatory approval and clinical use. Two GMP-grade products were analyzed, and results showed that sequence variant levels were low and consistent across batches and manufacturing sites, confirming manufacturing robustness and product reliability. Another aspect explored is the role of mass spectrometry in mechanistic studies of biopharmaceuticals. By implementing bottom-up proteomics workflows, it was possible to characterize changes in protein expression during therapy experiments in preclinical models. Here, mass spectrometry provided insights into how the treatments can modulate signalling pathways, interact with the tumor microenvironment, or synergize with other drugs. Finally, dedicated workflows for accurate quantification of therapeutic antibodies in complex matrices have been developed. By combining enrichment strategies, stable-isotope-labelled internal standards, and advanced acquisition methods, a sensitive and reproducible method was developed. Such a method was then applied to biodistribution studies and validated against well-established radiolabel-based techniques. By taking all projects together, this elaborate demonstrates the versatility of mass spectrometry as both a qualitative and quantitative platform. From ensuring product quality and stability to elucidating mechanisms of action to mapping the biodistribution of novel drug candidates in preclinical models, mass spectrometry can deliver comprehensive analytical solutions in biotherapeutics research.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/362491
URN:NBN:IT:IUSSPAVIA-362491