The introduction of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance (CFTR) modulator therapies has fundamentally transformed CF care, shifting sweat chloride testing from a onetime diagnostic assessment to a key component of longitudinal treatment monitoring. Despite this evolution, current testing protocols remain largely clinic-based, resourceintensive and provide only spot measurements. Wearable sweat sensors have therefore emerged as promising tools for enabling non-invasive, frequent and potentially automated monitoring. However, their clinical, practical and ethical implications remain largely unexplored. In this context, this work aimed to investigate both the technological development and the social and ethical implications of integrating a wearable chloride sweat sensor into established CF care pathways. On the technical side, we designed and developed an accurate, selective and flexible extended-gate organic electrochemical transistor (ExG-OECT) sweat chloride sensor incorporating a planar solid-state reference electrode (SSRE) was designed and developed. In parallel, social and ethical challenges were evaluated by collecting and analyzing clinicians perspectives through semi-structured interviews,for the responsible development of wearable technologies, supporting clinically meaningful and equitable implementation. A first prototype of the ExG-OECT chloride sensor was optimized and validated invitro using artificial sweat. A coplanar OECT incorporating poly(2-(3,3’-bis(2-(2-(2methoxyethoxy)ethoxy)ethoxy)-[2,2’-bithiophen]-5-yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene) (p(g2T-TT)) and a PS:PMMA:PS/EMIM:TFSI ion gel was developed as potentiometric transducer, showing a high normalized transconductance and excellent long-term operational stability. As sensing element, an inkjet-printed Ag/AgCl electrode was implemented, exhibiting excellent sensitivity, as well as substantial reproducibility and selectivity against common electrolytes and metabolites present in sweat. Sensor specificity was further demonstrated in artificial eccrine sweat, showing good sensitivity to clinically relevant chloride levels. Finally, the integration into the extended-gate architecture demonstrated a similar sensitivity of ≈54 mV/dec and LOD of 1.2 mM in artificial sweat. A one-to-one correspondence between the sensing-cell potentiometric response and the ExG-OECT threshold voltage shift further confirmed the validity of the potentiometric transduction mechanism. Thematic analysis of the semi-structured interviews with clinicians from the Pneumology Unit at Policlinico di Milano identified the perceived benefits and risks associated with adopting wearable sweat chloride monitoring in CF care. Recurring themes were identified across several domains, such as patient burden, optimal monitoring frequency, adherence, multimodal sensing, automation, telemedicine, self-monitoring and the essential features of an ideal device. Participants recognized the limitations of current sweat testing and identified clinical, organizational and research benefits associated with wearable monitoring. They identified potential benefits, including improved data reliability, reduced clinic visits, greater treatment personalization and opportunities for longitudinal research. At the same time, they raised concerns regarding limited knowledge on chloride dynamics, risks of overmedicalization, threats to patient autonomy and misinterpretation of self-generated data. While automation and telemedicine were viewed as promising, their integration requires careful design. Participants identified pivotal requirements, suggesting that an ideal device should be compact, robust and non-invasive, and should offer straightforward, largely automated operation with minimal patient involvement. These features are essential to guide design choices and to enable integration into CF care as a supportive tool that enhances quality of life and patient empowerment. To address the target design requirements identified through the interviews, a fully planar f lexible ExG-OECT integrating an Ag/AgCl SSRE sweat chloride sensor was developed. A revised transducer design was implemented on Parylene-C by integrating an inkjetprinted Ag/AgCl lateral gate with a PVDF-HFP/EMIM:TFSI ion gel. The resulting device showed increased normalized transconductance and an operating point shifted toward 0 V, supporting low-power operation. Subsequently, the fabrication of the sensing element on Parylene-C was optimized and its real-time response was assessed, showing a Nernstian sensitivity, minimal interference from common sweat electrolytes and metabolites, together with strong pH tolerance across a broad range. A planar and stable Ag/AgCl SSRE was developed to overcome a central bottleneck for wearable integration, replacing conventional glass Ag/AgCl reference electrodes. In the proposed design, crosslinked gelatin served as an internal chloride reservoir, while a PVDF:HFP semi-permeable membrane regulated ionic exchange with the external medium. The SSRE exhibited minimal interference from chloride and common sweat constituents and remained stable over 48 h of continuous operation. When the planar sensing cell was integrated with the flexible OECT, the device enabled real-time chloride monitoring over the 0.1-100 mM range, with normalized sensitivity of ≈40 %/dec and a limit of detection of 0.63 ± 0.22 mM in artificial sweat.
L’introduzione delle terapie modulatorie del regolatore della conduttanza transmembrana della fibrosi cistica (CFTR) ha trasformato profondamente la gestione della fibrosi cistica (CF), rendendo la quantificazione di cloruro nel sudore non solo uno strumento di valutazione diagnostica, ma anche un componente chiave per il monitoraggio della terapia. Nonostante questo cambio di paradigma, i protocolli attualmente in uso rimangono prevalentemente basati su valutazioni cliniche puntuali che richiedono l’utilizzo di risorse significative. In questo contesto, i sensori indossabili per l’analisi del sudore rappresentano un’alternativa promettente per il monitoraggio non invasivo, frequente e automatizzato. Tuttavia, le possibili implicazioni cliniche, pratiche ed etiche dell’introduzione di tali dispositivi rimangono ancora in gran parte inesplorate. Perciò, questo lavoro si propone di indagare sia lo sviluppo tecnologico sia le implicazioni sociali ed etiche dell’integrazione di un sensore indossabile per il monitoraggio del cloruro nel sudore in un contesto clinico consolidato come la gestione di pazienti CF. Dal punto di vista tecnologico, è stato progettato e sviluppato un sensore flessibile, selettivo e accurato per il cloruro nel sudore basato su un transistor organico elettrochimico a gate esteso (extended-gate organic electrochemical transistor, ExG-OECT) che integra un elettrodo di riferimento planare (solid-state refrence electrode, SSRE). In parallelo, le tematiche sociali ed etiche sono state analizzate raccogliendo e analizzando le prospettive dei clinici tramite interviste semi-strutturate, con l’obiettivo di supportare lo sviluppo responsabile del dispositivo indossabile e favorire un’implementazione clinicamente significativa ed equa. Un primo prototipo del sensore ExG-OECT per il cloruro è stato ottimizzato e validato in-vitro utilizzando sudore artificiale. È stato sviluppato un OECT coplanare composto da poly(2-(3,3’-bis(2-(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethoxy)ethoxy)-[2,2’-bithiophen]-5yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene) (p(g2T-TT)) come semiconduttore e da un ion gel a base di PS:PMMA:PS/EMIM:TFSI come trasduttore potenziometrico, il quale ha dimostrato un’elevata transconduttanza e un’eccellente stabilità. Come elemento sensibile è stato implementato un elettrodo Ag/AgCl stampato tramite inkjet, che ha mostrato un’elevata sensibilità, oltre a una buona riproducibilità e selettività in presenza dei principali elettroliti e metaboliti presenti nel sudore. La specificità del sensore è stata ulteriormente dimostrata in sudore artificiale, ottenendo una buona sensibilità in un range di cloruro clinicamente rilevante. Infine, il sensore ExG-OECT ha mostrato una sensibilità simile (≈54 mV/dec) e un limite di rilevazione (LOD) di 1.2 mM in sudore artificiale. Una corrispondenza uno-a-uno tra la risposta potenziometrica dell’ elemento sensibile e lo shift della tensione di soglia dell’ExG-OECT ha ulteriormente confermato la validità del meccanismo di trasduzione potenziometrica. L’analisi tematica delle interviste semi-strutturate con gli operatori sanitari del reparto di Pneumologia del Policlinico di Milano ha identificato i benefici e i rischi percepiti associati alla potenziale introduzion di un dispositivo indossabile per il monitoraggio del cloruro nel sudore nella gestione della CF. Diversi temi ricorrenti sono emersi dalle risposte dei partecipanti, tra cui il carico emotivo e fisico per il paziente, la frequenza ottimale di monitoraggio, l’aderenza terapeutica, il sensing multimodale, l’automazione, la telemedicina, l’automonitoraggio e le caratteristiche essenziali di un dispositivo ideale. I partecipanti hanno riconosciuto i limiti dell’attuale procedura per il test del sudore e hanno individuato i potenziali benefici clinici, organizzativi e di ricerca associati al monitoraggio continuo di cloruro. Tra i potenziali vantaggi sono stati evidenziati una maggiore affidabilità dei dati, la riduzione delle visite cliniche, una maggiore personalizzazione del trattamento e nuove opportunità per studi longitudinali. Allo stesso tempo, sono state sollevate preoccupazioni riguardo alla limitata conoscenza delle dinamiche fisiologiche del cloruro, al rischio di ipermedicalizzazione, alle possibili limitazioni all’autonomia del paziente e alla potenziale errata interpretazione dei dati auto-generati. Sebbene l’automazione del monitoraggio e la telemedicina siano considerate promettenti, la loro integrazione richiede un’attenta progettazione e pianificazione. I partecipanti hanno inoltre individuato requisiti chiave, suggerendo che un dispositivo ideale dovrebbe essere semplice, compatto, robusto, non invasivo e in larga misura automatizzato limitando il coinvolgimento del paziente. Tali caratteristiche risultano fondamentali per guidare le scelte progettuali e consentire l’integrazione del dispositivo nella gestione della CF come strumento di supporto in grado di migliorare la qualità della vita e promuovere l’empowerment dei pazienti. Per rispondere ai requisiti progettuali identificati attraverso le interviste, è stato sviluppato un ExG-OECT flessibile completamente planare che integra un sensore per il cloruro nel sudore basato su un SSRE Ag/AgCl. Un nuovo design del trasduttore è stato realizzato su Parylene-C integrando un gate laterale Ag/AgCl stampato tramite inkjet con un ion gel basato su PVDF-HFP/EMIM:TFSI. Il dispositivo risultante ha mostrato un aumento della transconduttanza e un punto di lavoro spostato verso 0 V, favorendo un funzionamento a basso consumo energetico. Successivamente, la fabbricazione dell’elemento sensibile su Parylene-C è stata ottimizzata e la sua risposta in tempo reale è stata valutata, mostrando una sensibilità nernstiana, minima interferenza da parte dei principali elettroliti e metaboliti del sudore e una forte resistenza al pH in un ampio intervallo. È stato inoltre sviluppato un SSRE planare e stabile per superare una delle principali limitazioni per l’integrazione di dispositivi indossabili, sostituendo i tradizionali elettrodi Ag/AgCl di riferimento in vetro. Nel design proposto, la gelatina reticolata funge da serbatoio interno di cloruro, mentre una membrana semipermeabile in PVDF:HFP regola lo scambio ionico con l’elettrolita esterno. Il SSRE ha mostrato interferenze minime da parte del cloruro e dei principali costituenti del sudore ed è rimasto stabile per oltre 48 ore di funzionamento continuo. Infine, la cella sensibile planare è stata integrata con l’OECT f lessibile, consentendo il monitoraggio in tempo reale del cloruro nel range 0.1–100 mM, con una sensibilità normalizzata di circa 40 %/dec e un limite di rilevazione di 0.63 ± 0.22 mM in sudore artificiale.
Wearable sensor for sweat chloride monitoring: technical and ethical considerations
BORTOLOTTI, CRISTIANO
2026
Abstract
The introduction of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance (CFTR) modulator therapies has fundamentally transformed CF care, shifting sweat chloride testing from a onetime diagnostic assessment to a key component of longitudinal treatment monitoring. Despite this evolution, current testing protocols remain largely clinic-based, resourceintensive and provide only spot measurements. Wearable sweat sensors have therefore emerged as promising tools for enabling non-invasive, frequent and potentially automated monitoring. However, their clinical, practical and ethical implications remain largely unexplored. In this context, this work aimed to investigate both the technological development and the social and ethical implications of integrating a wearable chloride sweat sensor into established CF care pathways. On the technical side, we designed and developed an accurate, selective and flexible extended-gate organic electrochemical transistor (ExG-OECT) sweat chloride sensor incorporating a planar solid-state reference electrode (SSRE) was designed and developed. In parallel, social and ethical challenges were evaluated by collecting and analyzing clinicians perspectives through semi-structured interviews,for the responsible development of wearable technologies, supporting clinically meaningful and equitable implementation. A first prototype of the ExG-OECT chloride sensor was optimized and validated invitro using artificial sweat. A coplanar OECT incorporating poly(2-(3,3’-bis(2-(2-(2methoxyethoxy)ethoxy)ethoxy)-[2,2’-bithiophen]-5-yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene) (p(g2T-TT)) and a PS:PMMA:PS/EMIM:TFSI ion gel was developed as potentiometric transducer, showing a high normalized transconductance and excellent long-term operational stability. As sensing element, an inkjet-printed Ag/AgCl electrode was implemented, exhibiting excellent sensitivity, as well as substantial reproducibility and selectivity against common electrolytes and metabolites present in sweat. Sensor specificity was further demonstrated in artificial eccrine sweat, showing good sensitivity to clinically relevant chloride levels. Finally, the integration into the extended-gate architecture demonstrated a similar sensitivity of ≈54 mV/dec and LOD of 1.2 mM in artificial sweat. A one-to-one correspondence between the sensing-cell potentiometric response and the ExG-OECT threshold voltage shift further confirmed the validity of the potentiometric transduction mechanism. Thematic analysis of the semi-structured interviews with clinicians from the Pneumology Unit at Policlinico di Milano identified the perceived benefits and risks associated with adopting wearable sweat chloride monitoring in CF care. Recurring themes were identified across several domains, such as patient burden, optimal monitoring frequency, adherence, multimodal sensing, automation, telemedicine, self-monitoring and the essential features of an ideal device. Participants recognized the limitations of current sweat testing and identified clinical, organizational and research benefits associated with wearable monitoring. They identified potential benefits, including improved data reliability, reduced clinic visits, greater treatment personalization and opportunities for longitudinal research. At the same time, they raised concerns regarding limited knowledge on chloride dynamics, risks of overmedicalization, threats to patient autonomy and misinterpretation of self-generated data. While automation and telemedicine were viewed as promising, their integration requires careful design. Participants identified pivotal requirements, suggesting that an ideal device should be compact, robust and non-invasive, and should offer straightforward, largely automated operation with minimal patient involvement. These features are essential to guide design choices and to enable integration into CF care as a supportive tool that enhances quality of life and patient empowerment. To address the target design requirements identified through the interviews, a fully planar f lexible ExG-OECT integrating an Ag/AgCl SSRE sweat chloride sensor was developed. A revised transducer design was implemented on Parylene-C by integrating an inkjetprinted Ag/AgCl lateral gate with a PVDF-HFP/EMIM:TFSI ion gel. The resulting device showed increased normalized transconductance and an operating point shifted toward 0 V, supporting low-power operation. Subsequently, the fabrication of the sensing element on Parylene-C was optimized and its real-time response was assessed, showing a Nernstian sensitivity, minimal interference from common sweat electrolytes and metabolites, together with strong pH tolerance across a broad range. A planar and stable Ag/AgCl SSRE was developed to overcome a central bottleneck for wearable integration, replacing conventional glass Ag/AgCl reference electrodes. In the proposed design, crosslinked gelatin served as an internal chloride reservoir, while a PVDF:HFP semi-permeable membrane regulated ionic exchange with the external medium. The SSRE exhibited minimal interference from chloride and common sweat constituents and remained stable over 48 h of continuous operation. When the planar sensing cell was integrated with the flexible OECT, the device enabled real-time chloride monitoring over the 0.1-100 mM range, with normalized sensitivity of ≈40 %/dec and a limit of detection of 0.63 ± 0.22 mM in artificial sweat.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/376652
URN:NBN:IT:POLIMI-376652