Smoking is a cause of serious diseases in smokers including lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cardiovascular disease. As reported by WHO in 2020 “22.3% of the global population used tobacco, 36.7% of all men and 7.8% of the world’s women” [1] . Public health bodies report that smoking is a cause of serious diseases in smokers including cancer and chronic respiratory diseases [2-4]. The CDC states that “each year cigarette smoking causes more than 480,000 deaths each year in the United States” (see Figure 7) and that “Smoking leads to disease and disability and harms nearly every organ of the body” and, “more than 16 million Americans are living with a disease caused by smoking” [4]. World Health Organization states that “Tobacco kills more than 8 million people each year worldwide. More than 7 million of those deaths are the result of direct tobacco use while around 1.2 million are the result of non-smokers being exposed to second-hand smoke.”[1] Complete cessation of all tobacco and nicotine use is undoubtedly the best action adult smokers can take to improve their health, but for those individuals who are not interested or willing to quit smoking, transitioning to potentially harm reduced NGP alternatives such as the EVP is the next best option. The concept of Tobacco Harm Reduction (THR) was introduced in 2001 by the US Institute of Medicine’s report: “Clearing the Smoke” [12] . This document broadly defines the THR as all means of reducing damage to the health of smokers who are uninterested or unwilling to stop consuming nicotine through traditional methods (e.g. cigarette smoking), by encouraging their substitution with other nicotine-containing products that potentially posed fewer health risks [13]. ‘Clearing the Smoke’ was the first official acknowledgment nicotine could be delivered to smokers without the harmful effects of cigarette smoke (formed during tobacco combustion). Public health bodies supporting the concept of Tobacco Harm Reduction (THR), accept its not nicotine but the Harmful and Potentially Harmful Constituents (HPHCs) generated by burning tobacco and found in cigarette smoke that cause, or potentially cause, smoking-related diseases. Science and technology have progressed at an unprecedented rate over the past few decades. By decoupling nicotine from harmful tobacco smoke, the option to provide adult smokers with potentially harm reduced alternatives to smoking exists. Numerous public health bodies have encouraged adult cigarette smokers who are uninterested or unwilling to stop cigarette consumption to transition to nicotine-containing products, that potentially pose fewer health risks [5-7]. Amongst these product the EVP category represents the most promising less harmful alternative to cigarettes, as it demonstrates the reduced risk potential while also achieving smoker acceptance through successfully mimicking many of the behavioural and sensorial aspects of the smoking experience [8]. Recent clinical studies have shown that adult smokers who have transitioned to EVPs, are exposed to substantially fewer and significantly lower levels of carcinogens and toxicants found in cigarette smoke, with levels of biomarkers of exposure largely indistinguishable from complete smoking cessation or use of approved pharmaceutical nicotine replacement products [9-17]. This PhD thesis aim to describe the implementation of these in vitro NAMs in line with the vision laid down by the TT21C, to the Imperial Brands PLC in vitro safety assessment framework. It is also to test the effects of the EVP products in the wide range of relevant testing endpoints with the application of both the regulatory endorsed in vitro assays and NAMs and to compare the overall toxicological and biological responses of the EVP with those observed as an outcome of the combustible cigarette smoke exposure. Imperial Brands has the policy not to conduct animal testing unless requested to do so by a recognized regulatory body. With this in mind and the utilisation of NAMs in line with the TT21C vision, for a comprehensive and broad human toxicological relevant assessment of the EVP products as a potential THR tool. This, together with the NAMs implementation to the Imperial Brands in vitro safety testing programme, falls under the scope of this PhD thesis. In the first PhD paper, an in vitro battery of established assays was used to examine the mutagenicity (bacterial reverse mutation test; Ames), genotoxicity (in vitro micronucleus test; IVM) and cytotoxicity (neutral red uptake assay; NRU) of e-liquids and EVP aerosols with and without nicotine in a range of flavourings, from two commercial closed EVP systems (blu PLUS+™ and blu GO™) and compared to combustible cigarette smoke. Certain modifications were employed to enable the human-relevant exposure of the fresh, whole aerosol and smoke. In the Ames test and IVM assays, exposures to e-liquids and EVP aerosols, with and without nicotine and in a range of flavourings, showed no mutagenic or genotoxic effects compared to reference cigarette smoke. The NRU assay showed significantly reduced cytotoxicity (P<0.05) for e-liquids and fresh, whole undiluted EVP aerosols, generated with either of the two e-cigarettes, compared to reference cigarette smoke, which by contrast was markedly cytotoxic even when diluted. In conclusion, the reduced in vitro acute toxicological responses of the tested EVPs resulted in significantly (250 to1000-fold reduction) reduced cytotoxic response of the EVP aerosols compared to cigarette smoke, which resulted in a severe toxicological response leading to the muta-, and genotoxicity classification. The PhD paper II presented a proposed extension of the established in vitro battery with mechanistic supplementation of the finite endpoint (genotoxicity). The ToxTracker and Aneugen Clastogen Evaluation (ACE) analysis can indicate activation of reporters associated with (geno)toxicity, including DNA damage, oxidative stress, the p53 related stress response and protein damage. A selection of neat e-liquids, EVP aerosols (aqueous extracts), Kentucky reference 1R6F cigarette smoke samples (aqueous extracts and TPM) with a range of positive controls were evaluated in the ToxTracker/ACE assay. The assay was initially validated to assess whether a mixture of e-liquid base components, propylene glycol (PG) and vegetable glycerine (VG) with known high osmolarity values, can interfere with the system readings. The PG/VG mixture did not greatly affect responses induced by the positive control compounds. Next, when compared to cigarette smoke samples, neat e-liquids and bPBS aerosols (tobacco flavour; 1.6% freebase nicotine, 1.6% nicotine salt or 0% nicotine) exhibited reduced and less complex responses. Tested up to a 10% concentration, EVP aerosol bPBS did not induce any ToxTracker reporters. Neat e-liquids, tested up to 1%, induced oxidative stress reporters, thought to be due to their effects on osmolarity in vitro. E-liquid nicotine content did not affect responses induced. Additionally, spiking nicotine alone only induced an oxidative stress response at a supraphysiological level. None of the EVP samples cause genotoxic effects in the ToxTracker assay in contrast to the cigarette-derived samples which were clearly classified as genotoxic and showed a substantial increases in the oxidative stress reporters (Srxn-1 and Blvrb), which is one of a widely recognized mechanisms of smoking-associated pathologies, such as the cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer [126-128]. As observed the Nrf2-associated Srxn1 signal decreased at higher test concentration (10%), which was in line with a loss of cell survival indicating severe cytotoxicity. One of the explanations of this could be an excessive oxidative stress burden, subsequently causing uncontrolled cell death. Additionally, a clear induction of the p53-associated Btg2-GFP and the Rtkn DNA damage reporters was observed following the cigarette exposure. This reported induction in the ToxTracker assay proves its sensitivity toward DNA-damaging and oxidative-stress related mechanisms. In order to perform even more human relevant toxicological evaluation of the inhalable NGPs and the combustible cigarette smoke, both based on the improved exposure at ALI, and with the use of human-derived complex tissue models the PhD Paper III aimed to assess the cellular and transcriptomic response from a commercially available RHuA tissue (MucilAirTM) following a single sub-cytotoxic exposure to fresh, whole cigarette smoke and the equivalent dose, normalised on nicotine delivery, of the EVP fresh, whole aerosol. No structural or pathological changes were observed following exposure to any product at either recovery time point (4 and 48 hours following the exposure). EVP aerosol exposure had no effect on CBF, ª nor barrier integrity and thigh junctions as indicated by TEER measurements at 48 hours recovery timepoint, when compared to incubator and air controls respectively. Although ª was unaffected, exposure to reference cigarette smoke resulted in a significant decrease in TEER, which as reported in the scientific literature is an early indication of the cytotoxicity [125], and a significant increase in CBF and all secreted pro-inflammatory mediators at both 4- and 48-hours following exposure when compared to equivalent time matched air controls. The total number of significantly expressed genes was minimal following exposure to EVP aerosol, where the exposure to 3R4F cigarette smoke resulted in a significant increase of DEGs and a clear response in several key disease pathways. Cigarette smoke exposure results in the enrichment of pathways associated with oxidative stress and inflammation. In contrast, exposure to an equivalent nicotine dose of EVP aerosol shows minimal effects at all levels of organisation. Although EVP exposure, induced a similar response to that observed by tissue cultures exposed to air, several pathways were impacted upon. The PhD Paper IV, building upon previous work, aimed to evaluate the THR potential of EVP compared to a reference cigarette, with the use of NAMs and in line with the vision of the TT21C in a range of functional endpoints related to chronic respiratory diseases. In order to more closely represent the user exposure scenario, the in vitro RHuA tissue model was repeatedly exposed to either fresh, whole undiluted aerosol of the EVP, or whole 3R4F cigarette smoke, at the air liquid interface (ALI), for 4 weeks to either 30, 60 or 90 puffs on 3-exposure-per-week basis. Repeated exposure of 3D lung model at the ALI for 4 weeks better recapitulates the product use than a single point acute exposure. Exposure to undiluted fresh, whole EVP aerosol did not trigger any significant changes in the level of pro-inflammatory mediators, cilia beating function, barrier integrity and cytotoxicity when compared with air controls. In contrast, exposure to diluted (1:17) fresh, whole cigarette smoke caused significant changes to all the endpoints mentioned above. To our knowledge, this is the first study evaluating the effects of repeated whole cigarette smoke and whole EVP aerosol exposure to a 3D lung model at the ALI. Our results add to the growing body of scientific literature supporting the THR potential of EVPs relative to combustible cigarettes and the applicability of the 3D lung models in human-relevant product risk assessments. Although there appears to be an upward trend for the higher EVP concentration at the later timepoints, the changes were small, temporary, and consistently less when compared to diluted 3R4F smoke. CAA was significantly decreased after repeated exposure to 90 puffs of EVP aerosol from T16, however, the mechanism of action is unclear. Other endpoints such as CBF, TEER, mucus production and cytotoxicity were not significantly different compared with air controls. By contrast, exposure to diluted cigarette smoke led to dramatic changes in tissue morphology (T26 for 60 puffs and T14 for 90 puffs 3R4F), significantly decreased ciliary functions and cilia numbers at all doses tested. Whilst exposure to 60 and 90 puffs of 3R4F did not induce goblet cell hyperplasia histologically, increased levels of pro-inflammatory mediators indicate an inflammatory response in response to increasing cytotoxicity. Exposure to the sub-cytotoxic dose of 30 puffs 3R4F smoke, did not induce goblet cell hyperplasia, potentially due to too short follow up period or still too high dose. The in vitro data presented here indicates that the high-quality EVP product may serve as a potential tobacco harm reduction tool, presenting overall a reduced risk when compared to cigarette smoke. It is important however, to note that no tobacco or nicotine-containing product is absolutely risk free. Additionally, the result presented here show a successful application of the NAMs for the comprehensive, human-relevant toxicological product risk assessment. These techniques were proven to be robust, sensitive and compatible with complex chemical composition of the test articles. Science and technology have progressed at an unprecedented rate over the past few decades. By decoupling nicotine from harmful tobacco smoke, the option to provide adult smokers with potentially harm reduced alternatives to smoking exists. It is Imperial Brands PLC policy not to conduct animal testing, and multiple regulatory authorities worldwide are investing into the development, validation, and the implementation of NAMs that are human-relevant and robust. This approach takes time, yet it is absolutely necessary for product assessment and screening purposes. It is this PhD Thesis aim to describe the implementation of the above mentioned NAMs in line with the vision laid down by the TT21C to the Imperial Brands PLC in vitro safety assessment framework. The New Approach Methods (NAMs), as laid down my many regulatory agencies, such as FDA [52], EPA [53] and NTP/ICCVAM [54] are the future of pre-clinical product assessment and are offering the mechanistic insight into the mode of action of chemicals. these assays can distinguish between product categories and within. Can differentiate the potential opportunity for the reduction in harm caused by cigarette smoking. Supported with the clinical and behavioural assessments/studies they form part of the overall wight of evidence approach (WoE) supporting the category - product assessment as part of the wider framework. The in vitro data presented here indicates that the high-quality EVP product may serve as a potential tobacco harm reduction tool, presenting overall a reduced risk when compared to cigarette smoke. It is important however, to note that no tobacco or nicotine-containing product is absolutely risk free. Additionally, the result presented here show a successful application of the NAMs for the comprehensive, human-relevant toxicological product risk assessment. These techniques were proven to be robust, sensitive and compatible with complex chemical composition of the test articles. My understanding of this area has moved significantly, and I believe that more robust research in the in vitro category can help in the reduction of the use of animals in the product assessment and can build strong evidence supporting any human-relevant studies and human exposure while product is on the market.
Il fumo è una causa di gravi malattie nei fumatori tra cui il cancro ai polmoni, la broncopneumopatia cronica ostruttiva (BPCO) e le malattie cardiovascolari. Come riportato dall'OMS nel 2020 “il 22,3% della popolazione mondiale consumava tabacco, il 36,7% di tutti gli uomini e il 7,8% delle donne del mondo” [1] . Gli organismi di sanità pubblica riferiscono che il fumo è causa di gravi malattie nei fumatori, tra cui il cancro e le malattie respiratorie croniche [2-4]. Il CDC afferma che "ogni anno il fumo di sigaretta causa più di 480.000 morti ogni anno negli Stati Uniti" (vedi Figura 7) e che "il fumo porta a malattie e disabilità e danneggia quasi tutti gli organi del corpo" e, "più di 16 milioni di americani convivono con una malattia causata dal fumo” [4]. L'Organizzazione Mondiale della Sanità afferma che “Il tabacco uccide più di 8 milioni di persone ogni anno in tutto il mondo. Più di 7 milioni di questi decessi sono il risultato dell'uso diretto del tabacco, mentre circa 1,2 milioni sono il risultato dell'esposizione al fumo passivo di non fumatori.”[1] La cessazione completa di tutto il consumo di tabacco e nicotina è senza dubbio la migliore azione che i fumatori adulti possono intraprendere per migliorare la propria salute, ma per quegli individui che non sono interessati o disposti a smettere di fumare, la transizione verso alternative NGP potenzialmente dannose come l'EVP è la prossima migliore opzione. Il concetto di Tobacco Harm Reduction (THR) è stato introdotto nel 2001 dal rapporto dello US Institute of Medicine: “Clearing the Smoke” [12] . Questo documento definisce a grandi linee la THR come tutti i mezzi per ridurre i danni alla salute dei fumatori che non sono interessati o non vogliono smettere di consumare nicotina attraverso metodi tradizionali (ad esempio il fumo di sigaretta), incoraggiando la loro sostituzione con altri prodotti contenenti nicotina che potenzialmente comportano minori rischi [13]. "Clearing the Smoke" è stato il primo riconoscimento ufficiale che la nicotina può essere fornita ai fumatori senza gli effetti nocivi del fumo di sigaretta (formato durante la combustione del tabacco). Gli organismi di sanità pubblica che sostengono il concetto di Tobacco Harm Reduction (THR), accettano che non sia la nicotina ma i costituenti nocivi e potenzialmente dannosi (HPHC) generati dalla combustione del tabacco e trovati nel fumo di sigaretta che causano, o potenzialmente causano, malattie legate al fumo. La scienza e la tecnologia sono progredite a un ritmo senza precedenti negli ultimi decenni. Separando la nicotina dal fumo nocivo del tabacco, esiste la possibilità di fornire ai fumatori adulti alternative al fumo potenzialmente meno dannose. Numerosi organismi di sanità pubblica hanno incoraggiato i fumatori adulti di sigarette che non sono interessati o non vogliono smettere di fumare a passare a prodotti contenenti nicotina, che potenzialmente presentano meno rischi per la salute [5-7]. Tra questi prodotti la categoria EVP rappresenta l'alternativa più promettente e meno dannosa alle sigarette, in quanto dimostra il ridotto potenziale di rischio e allo stesso tempo ottiene l'accettazione da parte del fumatore imitando con successo molti degli aspetti comportamentali e sensoriali dell'esperienza del fumo [8]. Recenti studi clinici hanno dimostrato che i fumatori adulti che sono passati agli EVP sono esposti a livelli sostanzialmente inferiori e significativamente inferiori di agenti cancerogeni e tossici presenti nel fumo di sigaretta, con livelli di biomarcatori di esposizione in gran parte indistinguibili dalla completa cessazione del fumo o dall'uso di nicotina farmaceutica approvata prodotti sostitutivi [9-17]. Questa tesi di dottorato mira a descrivere l'implementazione di questi NAM in vitro in linea con la visione stabilita dal TT21C, nel quadro di valutazione della sicurezza in vitro di Imperial Brands PLC. Si tratta inoltre di testare gli effetti dei prodotti EVP nell'ampia gamma di endpoint di test pertinenti con l'applicazione sia dei test in vitro approvati dalla regolamentazione che dei NAM e confrontare le risposte tossicologiche e biologiche complessive dell'EVP con quelle osservate come risultato dell'esposizione al fumo di sigaretta combustibile. Imperial Brands ha la politica di non condurre test sugli animali a meno che non venga richiesto da un organismo di regolamentazione riconosciuto. Con questo in mente e l'utilizzo di NAM in linea con la visione TT21C, per una valutazione tossicologica umana completa e rilevante dei prodotti EVP come potenziale strumento THR. Questo, insieme all'implementazione dei NAM nel programma di test di sicurezza in vitro di Imperial Brands, rientra nell'ambito di questa tesi di dottorato. Nel primo documento di dottorato, è stata utilizzata una batteria in vitro di test consolidati per esaminare la mutagenicità (test di mutazione inversa batterica; Ames), la genotossicità (test del micronucleo in vitro; IVM) e la citotossicità (test di assorbimento del rosso neutro; NRU) di e- liquidi e aerosol EVP con e senza nicotina in una gamma di aromi, da due sistemi EVP commerciali chiusi (blu PLUS+™ e blu GO™) e rispetto al fumo di sigaretta combustibile. Sono state impiegate alcune modifiche per consentire l'esposizione rilevante per l'uomo dell'aerosol fresco e intero e del fumo. Nel test Ames e nei test IVM, le esposizioni a e-liquid e aerosol EVP, con e senza nicotina e in una gamma di aromi, non hanno mostrato effetti mutageni o genotossici rispetto al fumo di sigaretta di riferimento. Il test NRU ha mostrato una citotossicità significativamente ridotta (P<0,05) per i liquidi elettronici e gli aerosol EVP freschi, interi non diluiti, generati con una delle due sigarette elettroniche, rispetto al fumo di sigaretta di riferimento, che al contrario era marcatamente citotossico anche se diluito. In conclusione, le ridotte risposte tossicologiche acute in vitro degli EVP testati hanno determinato una risposta citotossica significativamente ridotta (riduzione da 250 a 1000 volte) degli aerosol EVP rispetto al fumo di sigaretta, che ha provocato una grave risposta tossicologica che ha portato alla mutazione e classificazione della genotossicità. Il documento di dottorato II ha presentato una proposta di estensione della batteria in vitro stabilita con l'integrazione meccanicistica dell'endpoint finito (genotossicità). L'analisi ToxTracker e Aneugen Clastogen Evaluation (ACE) può indicare l'attivazione di reporter associati a (geno)tossicità, inclusi danni al DNA, stress ossidativo, risposta allo stress correlata alla p53 e danni alle proteine. Nel test ToxTracker/ACE è stata valutata una selezione di e-liquid puri, aerosol EVP (estratti acquosi), campioni di fumo di sigaretta Kentucky 1R6F di riferimento (estratti acquosi e TPM) con una gamma di controlli positivi. Il test è stato inizialmente convalidato per valutare se una miscela di componenti base di e-liquid, glicole propilenico (PG) e glicerina vegetale (VG) con valori di osmolarità elevati noti, può interferire con le letture del sistema. La miscela PG/VG non ha influenzato notevolmente le risposte indotte dai composti di controllo positivi. Successivamente, rispetto ai campioni di fumo di sigaretta, gli e-liquid puri e gli aerosol bPBS (sapore di tabacco; 1,6% di nicotina a base libera, 1,6% di sale di nicotina o 0% di nicotina) hanno mostrato risposte ridotte e meno complesse. Testato fino a una concentrazione del 10%, l'aerosol bPBS di EVP non ha indotto alcun reporter ToxTracker. Gli e-liquid puri, testati fino all'1%, hanno indotto i reporter di stress ossidativo, ritenuti dovuti ai loro effetti sull'osmolarità in vitro. Il contenuto di nicotina dell'e-liquid non ha influenzato le risposte indotte. Inoltre, l'aggiunta di nicotina da sola ha indotto solo una risposta allo stress ossidativo a livello soprafisiologico. Nessuno dei campioni di EVP causa effetti genotossici nel test ToxTracker, contrariamente ai campioni derivati dalle sigarette che sono stati chiaramente classificati come genotossici e hanno mostrato un aumento sostanziale dei reporter dello stress ossidativo (Srxn-1 e Blvrb), che è uno di un ampio meccanismi riconosciuti delle patologie associate al fumo, come le malattie cardiovascolari, la broncopneumopatia cronica ostruttiva e il cancro del polmone [126-128]. Come osservato, il segnale Srxn1 associato a Nrf2 è diminuito a una concentrazione di test più elevata (10%), il che era in linea con una perdita di sopravvivenza cellulare che indica una grave citotossicità. Una delle spiegazioni di ciò potrebbe essere un eccessivo carico di stress ossidativo, che successivamente causa la morte cellulare incontrollata. Inoltre, è stata osservata una chiara induzione del Btg2-GFP associato a p53 e dei reporter del danno al DNA Rtkn dopo l'esposizione alla sigaretta. Questa induzione segnalata nel test ToxTracker dimostra la sua sensibilità verso i meccanismi correlati al danno al DNA e allo stress ossidativo. Al fine di eseguire una valutazione tossicologica ancora più rilevante per l'uomo degli NGP inalabili e del fumo di sigaretta combustibile, entrambi basati sulla migliore esposizione all'ALI, e con l'uso di modelli di tessuti complessi di origine umana, il PhD Paper III mirava a valutare il risposta trascrittomica da un tessuto RHuA disponibile in commercio (MucilAirTM) a seguito di una singola esposizione sub-citotossica al fumo di sigaretta intero fresco e alla dose equivalente, normalizzata alla somministrazione di nicotina, dell'aerosol intero fresco EVP. Non sono stati osservati cambiamenti strutturali o patologici in seguito all'esposizione a qualsiasi prodotto in entrambi i tempi di recupero (4 e 48 ore dopo l'esposizione). L'esposizione all'aerosol EVP non ha avuto alcun effetto su CBF, ª né sull'integrità della barriera e sulle giunzioni della coscia, come indicato dalle misurazioni TEER al punto di recupero di 48 ore, rispetto rispettivamente all'incubatore e ai controlli dell'aria. Sebbene la ª non sia stata influenzata, l'esposizione al fumo di sigaretta di riferimento ha determinato una significativa diminuzione del TEER, che come riportato nella letteratura scientifica è un'indicazione precoce della citotossicità [125], e un aumento significativo del CBF e di tutti i mediatori pro-infiammatori secreti sia a 4 che a 48 ore dopo l'esposizione rispetto ai controlli dell'aria corrispondenti al tempo equivalente. Il numero totale di geni significativamente espressi è stato minimo dopo l'esposizione all'aerosol EVP, dove l'esposizione al fumo di sigaretta 3R4F ha provocato un aumento significativo dei DEG e una chiara risposta in diversi percorsi chiave della malattia. L'esposizione al fumo di sigaretta determina l'arricchimento dei percorsi associati allo stress ossidativo e all'infiammazione. Al contrario, l'esposizione a una dose equivalente di nicotina di aerosol EVP mostra effetti minimi a tutti i livelli di organizzazione. Sebbene l'esposizione all'EVP abbia indotto una risposta simile a quella osservata dalle colture di tessuti esposte all'aria, sono stati influenzati diversi percorsi. Il documento di dottorato IV, basandosi sul lavoro precedente, mirava a valutare il potenziale THR dell'EVP rispetto a una sigaretta di riferimento, con l'uso di NAM e in linea con la visione del TT21C in una serie di endpoint funzionali correlati alle malattie respiratorie croniche. Al fine di rappresentare più fedelmente lo scenario di esposizione dell'utente, il modello di tessuto RHuA in vitro è stato ripetutamente esposto all'aerosol fresco, intero non diluito dell'EVP, o al fumo di sigaretta intero 3R4F, all'interfaccia aria-liquido (ALI), per 4 settimane per 30, 60 o 90 puff su base di 3 esposizioni a settimana. L'esposizione ripetuta del modello polmonare 3D all'ALI per 4 settimane riassume meglio l'uso del prodotto rispetto a un singolo punto di esposizione acuta. L'esposizione ad aerosol di EVP intero fresco non diluito non ha innescato cambiamenti significativi nel livello dei mediatori pro-infiammatori, nella funzione di battito delle ciglia, nell'integrità della barriera e nella citotossicità rispetto ai controlli aerei. Al contrario, l'esposizione al fumo di sigaretta fresco intero diluito (1:17) ha causato cambiamenti significativi a tutti gli endpoint sopra menzionati. A nostra conoscenza, questo è il primo studio che valuta gli effetti del fumo di sigaretta intero ripetuto e dell'intera esposizione all'aerosol EVP su un modello polmonare 3D presso l'ALI. I nostri risultati si aggiungono al crescente corpo della letteratura scientifica a sostegno del potenziale THR degli EVP rispetto alle sigarette combustibili e all'applicabilità dei modelli polmonari 3D nelle valutazioni del rischio del prodotto rilevanti per l'uomo. Sebbene sembri esserci una tendenza al rialzo per la maggiore concentrazione di EVP nei punti temporali successivi, i cambiamenti sono stati piccoli, temporanei e costantemente inferiori rispetto al fumo diluito 3R4F. Il CAA è stato significativamente ridotto dopo l'esposizione ripetuta a 90 puff di aerosol EVP da T16, tuttavia, il meccanismo d'azione non è chiaro. Altri endpoint come CBF, TEER, produzione di muco e citotossicità non erano significativamente differenti rispetto ai controlli aerei. Al contrario, l'esposizione al fumo di sigaretta diluito ha portato a notevoli cambiamenti nella morfologia dei tessuti (T26 per 60 boccate e T14 per 90 boccate 3R4F), ha ridotto significativamente le funzioni ciliari e il numero di ciglia a tutte le dosi testate. Sebbene l'esposizione a 60 e 90 puff di 3R4F non abbia indotto istologicamente l'iperplasia delle cellule caliciformi, l'aumento dei livelli di mediatori pro-infiammatori indica una risposta infiammatoria in risposta all'aumento della citotossicità. L'esposizione alla dose sub-citotossica di 30 boccate di fumo 3R4F non ha indotto iperplasia delle cellule caliciformi, potenzialmente a causa di un periodo di follow-up troppo breve o di una dose ancora troppo elevata. I dati in vitro qui presentati indicano che il prodotto EVP di alta qualità può fungere da potenziale strumento di riduzione del danno del tabacco, presentando nel complesso un rischio ridotto rispetto al fumo di sigaretta. È importante, tuttavia, notare che nessun prodotto contenente tabacco o nicotina è assolutamente privo di rischi. Inoltre, i risultati qui presentati mostrano un'applicazione riuscita dei NAM per la valutazione completa e rilevante del rischio tossicologico del prodotto per l'uomo. Queste tecniche si sono dimostrate robuste, sensibili e compatibili con la complessa composizione chimica degli articoli di prova. La scienza e la tecnologia sono progredite a un ritmo senza precedenti negli ultimi decenni. Separando la nicotina dal fumo nocivo del tabacco, esiste la possibilità di fornire ai fumatori adulti alternative al fumo potenzialmente meno dannose. È politica di Imperial Brands PLC non condurre test sugli animali e diverse autorità di regolamentazione in tutto il mondo stanno investendo nello sviluppo, nella convalida e nell'implementazione di NAM che siano rilevanti per l'uomo e robusti. Questo approccio richiede tempo, ma è assolutamente necessario ai fini della valutazione e dello screening del prodotto. Lo scopo di questa tesi di dottorato è descrivere l'implementazione dei suddetti NAM in linea con la visione stabilita dal TT21C nel quadro di valutazione della sicurezza in vitro di Imperial Brands PLC. I nuovi metodi di approccio (NAM), come stabilito dalle mie numerose agenzie di regolamentazione, come FDA [52], EPA [53] e NTP/ICCVAM [54], sono il futuro della valutazione preclinica del prodotto e offrono la visione meccanicistica di modalità di azione delle sostanze chimiche. questi test possono distinguere tra categorie di prodotti e all'interno. Può differenziare la potenziale opportunità per la riduzione del danno causato dal fumo di sigaretta. Supportati da valutazioni/studi clinici e comportamentali, essi fanno parte dell'approccio complessivo del peso dell'evidenza (WoE) a sostegno della categoria - valutazione del prodotto come parte di un quadro più ampio. I dati in vitro qui presentati indicano che il prodotto EVP di alta qualità può fungere da potenziale strumento di riduzione del danno del tabacco, presentando nel complesso un rischio ridotto rispetto al fumo di sigaretta. È importante, tuttavia, notare che nessun prodotto contenente tabacco o nicotina è assolutamente privo di rischi. Inoltre, i risultati qui presentati mostrano un'applicazione riuscita dei NAM per la valutazione completa e rilevante del rischio tossicologico del prodotto per l'uomo. Queste tecniche si sono dimostrate robuste, sensibili e compatibili con la complessa composizione chimica degli articoli di prova. La mia comprensione di quest'area è cambiata in modo significativo e credo che una ricerca più solida nella categoria in vitro possa aiutare a ridurre l'uso di animali nella valutazione del prodotto e possa costruire prove solide a sostegno di qualsiasi studio rilevante per l'uomo e dell'esposizione umana mentre prodotto è sul mercato.
L'applicazione delle metodologie del nuovo approccio in vitro per chiarire i meccanismi di potenziale tossicità dell'EVP e delle sigarette combustibili
Czekala, Lukasz
2023
Abstract
Smoking is a cause of serious diseases in smokers including lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cardiovascular disease. As reported by WHO in 2020 “22.3% of the global population used tobacco, 36.7% of all men and 7.8% of the world’s women” [1] . Public health bodies report that smoking is a cause of serious diseases in smokers including cancer and chronic respiratory diseases [2-4]. The CDC states that “each year cigarette smoking causes more than 480,000 deaths each year in the United States” (see Figure 7) and that “Smoking leads to disease and disability and harms nearly every organ of the body” and, “more than 16 million Americans are living with a disease caused by smoking” [4]. World Health Organization states that “Tobacco kills more than 8 million people each year worldwide. More than 7 million of those deaths are the result of direct tobacco use while around 1.2 million are the result of non-smokers being exposed to second-hand smoke.”[1] Complete cessation of all tobacco and nicotine use is undoubtedly the best action adult smokers can take to improve their health, but for those individuals who are not interested or willing to quit smoking, transitioning to potentially harm reduced NGP alternatives such as the EVP is the next best option. The concept of Tobacco Harm Reduction (THR) was introduced in 2001 by the US Institute of Medicine’s report: “Clearing the Smoke” [12] . This document broadly defines the THR as all means of reducing damage to the health of smokers who are uninterested or unwilling to stop consuming nicotine through traditional methods (e.g. cigarette smoking), by encouraging their substitution with other nicotine-containing products that potentially posed fewer health risks [13]. ‘Clearing the Smoke’ was the first official acknowledgment nicotine could be delivered to smokers without the harmful effects of cigarette smoke (formed during tobacco combustion). Public health bodies supporting the concept of Tobacco Harm Reduction (THR), accept its not nicotine but the Harmful and Potentially Harmful Constituents (HPHCs) generated by burning tobacco and found in cigarette smoke that cause, or potentially cause, smoking-related diseases. Science and technology have progressed at an unprecedented rate over the past few decades. By decoupling nicotine from harmful tobacco smoke, the option to provide adult smokers with potentially harm reduced alternatives to smoking exists. Numerous public health bodies have encouraged adult cigarette smokers who are uninterested or unwilling to stop cigarette consumption to transition to nicotine-containing products, that potentially pose fewer health risks [5-7]. Amongst these product the EVP category represents the most promising less harmful alternative to cigarettes, as it demonstrates the reduced risk potential while also achieving smoker acceptance through successfully mimicking many of the behavioural and sensorial aspects of the smoking experience [8]. Recent clinical studies have shown that adult smokers who have transitioned to EVPs, are exposed to substantially fewer and significantly lower levels of carcinogens and toxicants found in cigarette smoke, with levels of biomarkers of exposure largely indistinguishable from complete smoking cessation or use of approved pharmaceutical nicotine replacement products [9-17]. This PhD thesis aim to describe the implementation of these in vitro NAMs in line with the vision laid down by the TT21C, to the Imperial Brands PLC in vitro safety assessment framework. It is also to test the effects of the EVP products in the wide range of relevant testing endpoints with the application of both the regulatory endorsed in vitro assays and NAMs and to compare the overall toxicological and biological responses of the EVP with those observed as an outcome of the combustible cigarette smoke exposure. Imperial Brands has the policy not to conduct animal testing unless requested to do so by a recognized regulatory body. With this in mind and the utilisation of NAMs in line with the TT21C vision, for a comprehensive and broad human toxicological relevant assessment of the EVP products as a potential THR tool. This, together with the NAMs implementation to the Imperial Brands in vitro safety testing programme, falls under the scope of this PhD thesis. In the first PhD paper, an in vitro battery of established assays was used to examine the mutagenicity (bacterial reverse mutation test; Ames), genotoxicity (in vitro micronucleus test; IVM) and cytotoxicity (neutral red uptake assay; NRU) of e-liquids and EVP aerosols with and without nicotine in a range of flavourings, from two commercial closed EVP systems (blu PLUS+™ and blu GO™) and compared to combustible cigarette smoke. Certain modifications were employed to enable the human-relevant exposure of the fresh, whole aerosol and smoke. In the Ames test and IVM assays, exposures to e-liquids and EVP aerosols, with and without nicotine and in a range of flavourings, showed no mutagenic or genotoxic effects compared to reference cigarette smoke. The NRU assay showed significantly reduced cytotoxicity (P<0.05) for e-liquids and fresh, whole undiluted EVP aerosols, generated with either of the two e-cigarettes, compared to reference cigarette smoke, which by contrast was markedly cytotoxic even when diluted. In conclusion, the reduced in vitro acute toxicological responses of the tested EVPs resulted in significantly (250 to1000-fold reduction) reduced cytotoxic response of the EVP aerosols compared to cigarette smoke, which resulted in a severe toxicological response leading to the muta-, and genotoxicity classification. The PhD paper II presented a proposed extension of the established in vitro battery with mechanistic supplementation of the finite endpoint (genotoxicity). The ToxTracker and Aneugen Clastogen Evaluation (ACE) analysis can indicate activation of reporters associated with (geno)toxicity, including DNA damage, oxidative stress, the p53 related stress response and protein damage. A selection of neat e-liquids, EVP aerosols (aqueous extracts), Kentucky reference 1R6F cigarette smoke samples (aqueous extracts and TPM) with a range of positive controls were evaluated in the ToxTracker/ACE assay. The assay was initially validated to assess whether a mixture of e-liquid base components, propylene glycol (PG) and vegetable glycerine (VG) with known high osmolarity values, can interfere with the system readings. The PG/VG mixture did not greatly affect responses induced by the positive control compounds. Next, when compared to cigarette smoke samples, neat e-liquids and bPBS aerosols (tobacco flavour; 1.6% freebase nicotine, 1.6% nicotine salt or 0% nicotine) exhibited reduced and less complex responses. Tested up to a 10% concentration, EVP aerosol bPBS did not induce any ToxTracker reporters. Neat e-liquids, tested up to 1%, induced oxidative stress reporters, thought to be due to their effects on osmolarity in vitro. E-liquid nicotine content did not affect responses induced. Additionally, spiking nicotine alone only induced an oxidative stress response at a supraphysiological level. None of the EVP samples cause genotoxic effects in the ToxTracker assay in contrast to the cigarette-derived samples which were clearly classified as genotoxic and showed a substantial increases in the oxidative stress reporters (Srxn-1 and Blvrb), which is one of a widely recognized mechanisms of smoking-associated pathologies, such as the cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer [126-128]. As observed the Nrf2-associated Srxn1 signal decreased at higher test concentration (10%), which was in line with a loss of cell survival indicating severe cytotoxicity. One of the explanations of this could be an excessive oxidative stress burden, subsequently causing uncontrolled cell death. Additionally, a clear induction of the p53-associated Btg2-GFP and the Rtkn DNA damage reporters was observed following the cigarette exposure. This reported induction in the ToxTracker assay proves its sensitivity toward DNA-damaging and oxidative-stress related mechanisms. In order to perform even more human relevant toxicological evaluation of the inhalable NGPs and the combustible cigarette smoke, both based on the improved exposure at ALI, and with the use of human-derived complex tissue models the PhD Paper III aimed to assess the cellular and transcriptomic response from a commercially available RHuA tissue (MucilAirTM) following a single sub-cytotoxic exposure to fresh, whole cigarette smoke and the equivalent dose, normalised on nicotine delivery, of the EVP fresh, whole aerosol. No structural or pathological changes were observed following exposure to any product at either recovery time point (4 and 48 hours following the exposure). EVP aerosol exposure had no effect on CBF, ª nor barrier integrity and thigh junctions as indicated by TEER measurements at 48 hours recovery timepoint, when compared to incubator and air controls respectively. Although ª was unaffected, exposure to reference cigarette smoke resulted in a significant decrease in TEER, which as reported in the scientific literature is an early indication of the cytotoxicity [125], and a significant increase in CBF and all secreted pro-inflammatory mediators at both 4- and 48-hours following exposure when compared to equivalent time matched air controls. The total number of significantly expressed genes was minimal following exposure to EVP aerosol, where the exposure to 3R4F cigarette smoke resulted in a significant increase of DEGs and a clear response in several key disease pathways. Cigarette smoke exposure results in the enrichment of pathways associated with oxidative stress and inflammation. In contrast, exposure to an equivalent nicotine dose of EVP aerosol shows minimal effects at all levels of organisation. Although EVP exposure, induced a similar response to that observed by tissue cultures exposed to air, several pathways were impacted upon. The PhD Paper IV, building upon previous work, aimed to evaluate the THR potential of EVP compared to a reference cigarette, with the use of NAMs and in line with the vision of the TT21C in a range of functional endpoints related to chronic respiratory diseases. In order to more closely represent the user exposure scenario, the in vitro RHuA tissue model was repeatedly exposed to either fresh, whole undiluted aerosol of the EVP, or whole 3R4F cigarette smoke, at the air liquid interface (ALI), for 4 weeks to either 30, 60 or 90 puffs on 3-exposure-per-week basis. Repeated exposure of 3D lung model at the ALI for 4 weeks better recapitulates the product use than a single point acute exposure. Exposure to undiluted fresh, whole EVP aerosol did not trigger any significant changes in the level of pro-inflammatory mediators, cilia beating function, barrier integrity and cytotoxicity when compared with air controls. In contrast, exposure to diluted (1:17) fresh, whole cigarette smoke caused significant changes to all the endpoints mentioned above. To our knowledge, this is the first study evaluating the effects of repeated whole cigarette smoke and whole EVP aerosol exposure to a 3D lung model at the ALI. Our results add to the growing body of scientific literature supporting the THR potential of EVPs relative to combustible cigarettes and the applicability of the 3D lung models in human-relevant product risk assessments. Although there appears to be an upward trend for the higher EVP concentration at the later timepoints, the changes were small, temporary, and consistently less when compared to diluted 3R4F smoke. CAA was significantly decreased after repeated exposure to 90 puffs of EVP aerosol from T16, however, the mechanism of action is unclear. Other endpoints such as CBF, TEER, mucus production and cytotoxicity were not significantly different compared with air controls. By contrast, exposure to diluted cigarette smoke led to dramatic changes in tissue morphology (T26 for 60 puffs and T14 for 90 puffs 3R4F), significantly decreased ciliary functions and cilia numbers at all doses tested. Whilst exposure to 60 and 90 puffs of 3R4F did not induce goblet cell hyperplasia histologically, increased levels of pro-inflammatory mediators indicate an inflammatory response in response to increasing cytotoxicity. Exposure to the sub-cytotoxic dose of 30 puffs 3R4F smoke, did not induce goblet cell hyperplasia, potentially due to too short follow up period or still too high dose. The in vitro data presented here indicates that the high-quality EVP product may serve as a potential tobacco harm reduction tool, presenting overall a reduced risk when compared to cigarette smoke. It is important however, to note that no tobacco or nicotine-containing product is absolutely risk free. Additionally, the result presented here show a successful application of the NAMs for the comprehensive, human-relevant toxicological product risk assessment. These techniques were proven to be robust, sensitive and compatible with complex chemical composition of the test articles. Science and technology have progressed at an unprecedented rate over the past few decades. By decoupling nicotine from harmful tobacco smoke, the option to provide adult smokers with potentially harm reduced alternatives to smoking exists. It is Imperial Brands PLC policy not to conduct animal testing, and multiple regulatory authorities worldwide are investing into the development, validation, and the implementation of NAMs that are human-relevant and robust. This approach takes time, yet it is absolutely necessary for product assessment and screening purposes. It is this PhD Thesis aim to describe the implementation of the above mentioned NAMs in line with the vision laid down by the TT21C to the Imperial Brands PLC in vitro safety assessment framework. The New Approach Methods (NAMs), as laid down my many regulatory agencies, such as FDA [52], EPA [53] and NTP/ICCVAM [54] are the future of pre-clinical product assessment and are offering the mechanistic insight into the mode of action of chemicals. these assays can distinguish between product categories and within. Can differentiate the potential opportunity for the reduction in harm caused by cigarette smoking. Supported with the clinical and behavioural assessments/studies they form part of the overall wight of evidence approach (WoE) supporting the category - product assessment as part of the wider framework. The in vitro data presented here indicates that the high-quality EVP product may serve as a potential tobacco harm reduction tool, presenting overall a reduced risk when compared to cigarette smoke. It is important however, to note that no tobacco or nicotine-containing product is absolutely risk free. Additionally, the result presented here show a successful application of the NAMs for the comprehensive, human-relevant toxicological product risk assessment. These techniques were proven to be robust, sensitive and compatible with complex chemical composition of the test articles. My understanding of this area has moved significantly, and I believe that more robust research in the in vitro category can help in the reduction of the use of animals in the product assessment and can build strong evidence supporting any human-relevant studies and human exposure while product is on the market.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Lukasz Czekala - PhD Thesis - FINAL v2.0 - Appendix I-IV Combined - 31.01.2023.pdf
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/74924
URN:NBN:IT:UNICT-74924