Faces are universally important for a variety of reasons, ranging from identifying individuals to conveying social information. There is now ample evidence that, during the first year of life, facial experience provided to each infant by their social environment shapes the development of face representation, which progressively tunes towards the facial characteristics of the individuals that are more salient to the infant. Data from parental reports and naturalistic studies indicate that there are typically large discrepancies in the social attributes of faces to which infants are exposed during their first year of life, with the majority of facial experience being with individuals of the same race, gender and age as the primary caregiver. Moreover, researchers have argued that the developmental task of forming attachment relationship with caregiver boosts the discrimination of the primary caregiver from all others, making female own-race faces the most socially and emotionally relevant face category for infants. These discrepancies in the amount of interactions, along with enhanced motivation to attend to individuals with demographic characteristics of the primary caregiver have been linked to the emergence in infancy of a representational bias toward caregiver-like faces. Despite such face bias is well established in infancy, little is known about the face-processing behavior later in development, when changes in both the structure of social environment (e.g., exposure to other adults and peers at the daycare) and developmental task (e.g., learning self-mastery) could influence how children attend and process faces. In this doctoral dissertation, I will present four studies conducted during my PhD, which were aimed to investigate how the face processing system is influenced by each individual's social experience and developmental tasks during infancy and early childhood. Study 1 and Study 2 (Chapter 1) investigated the development of the age bias by exploring the effects of early-acquired facial experience on perceptual recognition and visual exploration strategies used to encode adult and child faces in infants and children. Study 1 explored recognition abilities and scanning patterns of adult and child faces in first-born 10-month-old infants. Study 2 investigated these same aspects in 5-year-old children with different amount of experience with child faces resulting from the absence versus presence of an older sibling in the household.Overall, results showed that experience acquired early in life with adults directs infants’ face-processing behavior towards a better processing of such face age. Instead, in childhood the exposure to different people along with age-specific developmental tasks even out the encoding of adult and child faces. Studies 3 and 4 (Chapter 2) were aimed at extending evidence on visual scanning strategies and neural activity in encoding facial race and gender attributes in 3- to 6-year-old children. Study 3 explored with multi-method analyses of eye-tracking data how children process the race and the gender of faces, systematically investigating the interaction between those facial attributes. Study 4 investigated children’s neural categorization of race and gender attributes of faces by comparing steady-state visual-evoked potentials in response to female and male faces from both own- and other-race. The results of these studies extend the existing evidence on how race and gender attributes interplay for defining children’s face-processing behavior and yielded novel insights into neural mechanisms underlying the race and gender biases. Overall, these studies support the hypothesis that face-processing abilities vary throughout development, reflecting the continuous reorganization of the face perception to changing environmental experiences and developmental tasks.
I volti sono una delle categorie di stimoli più salienti per l’uomo, soprattutto considerata la quantità d’informazioni socialmente rilevanti in essi contenute. Vi è ampia evidenza che durante il primo anno di vita, l'esperienza con specifiche categorie di volto fornita dall’ambiente sociale modella lo sviluppo della rappresentazione dei volti, che si sintonizza progressivamente verso le caratteristiche facciali degli individui più salienti per il bambino. Esistono ampie discrepanze nelle caratteristiche sociali dei volti a cui i bambini sono esposti durante il primo anno di vita, con la maggior parte dell'esperienza acquisita con individui della stessa etnia, genere ed età del caregiver primario. Inoltre, il compito evolutivo di formare una relazione di attaccamento con il caregiver fa sì che i volti simili al caregiver costituiscano la categoria di viso più socialmente ed emotivamente rilevante per i bambini. Le discrepanze nella quantità di interazioni, unite a una maggiore motivazione a interagire con le persone con le stesse caratteristiche demografiche del caregiver primario, sono state collegate all'emergere di un bias rappresentazionale per i volti simili al caregiver. Sebbene tale bias sia ben radicato nell'infanzia, poco si sa dell’elaborazione dei volti in fasi di sviluppo successive, quando i cambiamenti nella struttura dell'ambiente sociale (es. esposizione ad altri adulti e ai pari all'asilo) e specifici compiti evolutivi (es. sviluppo dell’autonomia) potrebbero influenzare il modo in cui i bambini elaborano i volti. In questa tesi, presenterò quattro studi condotti durante il mio dottorato di ricerca, che avevano lo scopo di indagare come l’elaborazione dei volti è influenzata dall'esperienza sociale di ciascun individuo e dai compiti evolutivi nella prima infanzia e in età prescolare. Lo Studio 1 e lo Studio 2 (Capitolo 1) hanno indagato lo sviluppo del bias dell'età esplorando gli effetti dell'esperienza precoce sul riconoscimento percettivo e le strategie di esplorazione visiva utilizzate per codificare volti di adulto e bambino. Lo studio 1 ha esplorato le capacità di riconoscimento e di scansione di volti di adulto e bambino in bambini di 10 mesi. Lo studio 2 ha esaminato questi stessi aspetti in bambini di 5 anni, i quali hanno acquisito diversa esperienza con volti di bambino per via della presenza o meno di un fratello maggiore in famiglia. Nel complesso, i risultati hanno mostrato che l'esperienza acquisita nella prima infanzia con gli adulti indirizza il comportamento di elaborazione dei bambini verso una migliore elaborazione dei volti di adulto. Invece, in età prescolare, l'esposizione a persone diverse insieme a compiti evolutivi specifici dell'età, livellano la codifica di volti di adulto e bambino. Gli studi 3 e 4 (capitolo 2) hanno esteso le evidenze delle strategie di scansione visiva e dell'attività neurale nella codifica dell’etnia e del genere dei volti in bambini di età compresa tra 3 e 6 anni. Lo Studio 3 ha esplorato con un’analisi multi-metodo dei dati di eye-tracking l’interazione sistematica degli attributi di etnia e genere dei volti. Lo studio 4 ha studiato la categorizzazione neurale dei bambini confrontando potenziali evocati visivi steady-state in risposta a volti femminili e maschili della stessa o diversa etnia del caregiver. I risultati di questi studi estendono le evidenze esistenti di come gli attributi di etnia e genere interagiscono nella definizione del comportamento di elaborazione dei volti e forniscono nuovi risultati sui meccanismi neurali alla base dei bias di etnia e genere. Complessivamente, questi studi supportano l'ipotesi che le abilità di elaborazione del volto variano durante lo sviluppo, riflettendo la continua riorganizzazione del sistema percettivo ai cambiamenti nelle esperienze ambientali e nei compiti evolutivi.
The caregiver bias in face processing across development: a multi-method investigation in infants and children
CONTE, STEFANIA
2018
Abstract
Faces are universally important for a variety of reasons, ranging from identifying individuals to conveying social information. There is now ample evidence that, during the first year of life, facial experience provided to each infant by their social environment shapes the development of face representation, which progressively tunes towards the facial characteristics of the individuals that are more salient to the infant. Data from parental reports and naturalistic studies indicate that there are typically large discrepancies in the social attributes of faces to which infants are exposed during their first year of life, with the majority of facial experience being with individuals of the same race, gender and age as the primary caregiver. Moreover, researchers have argued that the developmental task of forming attachment relationship with caregiver boosts the discrimination of the primary caregiver from all others, making female own-race faces the most socially and emotionally relevant face category for infants. These discrepancies in the amount of interactions, along with enhanced motivation to attend to individuals with demographic characteristics of the primary caregiver have been linked to the emergence in infancy of a representational bias toward caregiver-like faces. Despite such face bias is well established in infancy, little is known about the face-processing behavior later in development, when changes in both the structure of social environment (e.g., exposure to other adults and peers at the daycare) and developmental task (e.g., learning self-mastery) could influence how children attend and process faces. In this doctoral dissertation, I will present four studies conducted during my PhD, which were aimed to investigate how the face processing system is influenced by each individual's social experience and developmental tasks during infancy and early childhood. Study 1 and Study 2 (Chapter 1) investigated the development of the age bias by exploring the effects of early-acquired facial experience on perceptual recognition and visual exploration strategies used to encode adult and child faces in infants and children. Study 1 explored recognition abilities and scanning patterns of adult and child faces in first-born 10-month-old infants. Study 2 investigated these same aspects in 5-year-old children with different amount of experience with child faces resulting from the absence versus presence of an older sibling in the household.Overall, results showed that experience acquired early in life with adults directs infants’ face-processing behavior towards a better processing of such face age. Instead, in childhood the exposure to different people along with age-specific developmental tasks even out the encoding of adult and child faces. Studies 3 and 4 (Chapter 2) were aimed at extending evidence on visual scanning strategies and neural activity in encoding facial race and gender attributes in 3- to 6-year-old children. Study 3 explored with multi-method analyses of eye-tracking data how children process the race and the gender of faces, systematically investigating the interaction between those facial attributes. Study 4 investigated children’s neural categorization of race and gender attributes of faces by comparing steady-state visual-evoked potentials in response to female and male faces from both own- and other-race. The results of these studies extend the existing evidence on how race and gender attributes interplay for defining children’s face-processing behavior and yielded novel insights into neural mechanisms underlying the race and gender biases. Overall, these studies support the hypothesis that face-processing abilities vary throughout development, reflecting the continuous reorganization of the face perception to changing environmental experiences and developmental tasks.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/76744
URN:NBN:IT:UNIMIB-76744