Thanks to their unique physicochemical properties, graphene-related materials (GRMs) are used in many innovative fields. The increasing development of GRMs-containing products and resulting widespread availability could lead to unintended GRMs release with unknown consequences for the environment. According to the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulation, all new substances manufactured in the European Union must undergo a battery of ecotoxicological bioassays from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to assess their risk to human health and environment, i.e. the OECD Test Guidelines (TG). Importantly, the TGs suggested to assess the risk for freshwater environments, i.e. TGs 201, 202, and 203, were developed for water-soluble substances and have an applicability criterion requiring that the concentration of tested substances does not change more than ± 20 % during the testing time. However, GRMs dispersed in aqueous media tend to aggregate and settle, changing their concentration and bioavailability over time. For this reason, the aim of my PhD project is to assess the GRMs behaviour in both synthetic and natural media, posing special attention to algal ecotoxicity. To this end, several laboratory experiments were conducted to verify the applicability of the “OECD TG 201: Freshwater algae and cyanobacteria growth inhibition test” to few-layers graphene (FLG), graphene oxide (GO), and reduced GO (rGO), focusing on possible factors affecting the GRMs dispersion stability (GDS): (i) particles composition and (ii) concentration, (iii) turbulence, (iv) medium composition, and (v) the presence of the algae, Raphidocelis subcapitata, the most commonly used green alga of this TG. First, a suitable methodological approach has been developed to assess the TG 201 test endpoints, which involves the utilization of flow cytometry (FCM), Turbiscan, and Utermöhl sedimentation chambers (USC). The results reported high aggregation and sedimentation of GRMs, and the GDS mainly depended on the GRMs physicochemical nature: FLG had the fastest aggregation and sedimentation, while GO was the most stable. Unfortunately, none of the tested modifications to exposure conditions ensured the fulfilment of the TG 201 stability requirement. However, it was possible to determine a delayed starting time of the test after which GRMs dispersions do not change significantly due to aggregation and sedimentation phenomena. Furthermore, the GRMs re-characterization showed a decrease in dimensions of flakes remaining in dispersion, an important factor influencing both the bioavailability and the potential environmental fate. Due to the unstable nature of GRMs in aqueous media, their fate in freshwater environments has been also investigated. First, by evaluating their behaviour in different commercial mineral waters to test the effect of the ionic contents on the GDS, and then also in real fresh waters collected from water bodies of Friuli Venezia Giulia. Waters have been collected from different sites, selected for their different environmental characteristics, to test the effect of environmental-like conditions on the GDS. Strong aggregation and sedimentation, even higher than in common test medium (i.e. TG 201 medium) and deionized water, have been observed, potentially due to high NOM, clay and ionic content in the waters. Furthermore, algae exposed to GO in fresh waters samples exhibited significant growth inhibition, possibly as a result of interactions of GO with environmental pollutants, that should be further investigate. These data help predicting not only the GRMs behaviour during ecotoxicological testing, an important factor for a reliable interpretation of TG 201 results, but also the GRMs behaviour and fate in real freshwater environments.
Grazie alle loro peculiari proprietà chimico-fisiche, i materiali grafenici (GRMs) vengono impiegati in molti campi innovativi. Il crescente sviluppo di prodotti contenenti GRMs e la loro sempre più ampia disponibilità potrebbero comportare un rilascio involontario di GRMs con conseguenze ancora sconosciute per l'ambiente. Secondo il regolamento REACH, tutte le nuove sostanze prodotte nell’UE devono essere sottoposte a una serie di saggi ecotossicologici dell'OECD per valutare il rischio ambientale. È importante precisare che le TGs suggerite per valutare il rischio per gli ambienti di acqua dolce, (TG 201, 202 e 203), sono state sviluppate per sostanze solubili in acqua e richiedono il mantenimento di una concentrazione costante, con una variazione massima del ± 20% durante il test. Tuttavia, i GRMs dispersi in mezzi acquosi tendono ad aggregare e sedimentare, alterando la loro concentrazione e biodisponibilità nel tempo. Pertanto, lo scopo del mio progetto di dottorato è valutare il comportamento dei GRMs sia in mezzi sintetici che naturali, prestando particolare attenzione all'ecotossicità algale. A tal fine, sono stati condotti diversi esperimenti per verificare l'applicabilità del "Test 201: Inibizione della crescita di alghe e cianobatteri d'acqua dolce" per few-layers graphene (FLG), grafene ossido (GO) e grafene ossido ridotto (rGO), concentrandosi sui possibili fattori che influenzano la stabilità delle dispersioni di GRMs (GDS): (i) composizione delle particelle e (ii) concentrazione, (iii) turbolenza, (iv) composizione del mezzo e (v) la presenza delle alghe, Raphidocelis subcapitata, la specie algale più comunemente utilizzata per questa TG. In primo luogo, è stato sviluppato un approccio metodologico idoneo a valutare gli endpoints della TG 201, che prevede l'utilizzo di tecniche di citofluorimetria (FCM), Turbiscan e camere di sedimentazione Utermöhl (USC). I risultati hanno evidenziato una forte aggregazione e sedimentazione, e la GDS dipendeva principalmente dalla natura chimico-fisica dei GRMs: l’FLG aveva la più rapida aggregazione e sedimentazione, mentre il GO era il più stabile. Purtroppo, nessuna delle modifiche testate ha permesso di soddisfare il requisito di stabilità della TG 201. Tuttavia, è stato possibile determinare un tempo di inizio ritardato del test oltre il quale le dispersioni di GRMs non subiscono ulteriori cambi significativi a causa dei fenomeni di aggregazione e sedimentazione. Inoltre, la ricaratterizzazione dei GRMs ha mostrato una diminuzione delle dimensioni dei flakes rimasti in dispersione, un fattore importante che influisce sia sulla biodisponibilità che sul potenziale destino ambientale. A causa della natura instabile dei GRMs nei mezzi acquosi, è stata anche indagata la loro sorte in ambienti d'acqua dolce. Innanzitutto, valutando il loro comportamento in diverse acque minerali commerciali, per testare l'effetto del contenuto ionico sulla GDS, e successivamente anche in acque dolci raccolte da corpi idrici del Friuli Venezia Giulia, selezionate per le loro diverse caratteristiche, al fine di testare l'effetto di condizioni simil-ambientali sulla GDS. Sono stati osservati forti fenomeni di aggregazione e sedimentazione, anche superiori a quanto riscontrato in un mezzo comunemente utilizzato (il mezzo standard della TG 201) e in acqua deionizzata, probabilmente a causa dell'alto contenuto di materia organica naturale (NOM), argille e ioni nelle acque. Inoltre, le alghe esposte al GO in campioni d'acqua dolce hanno mostrato un'elevata inibizione della crescita, probabilmente a causa all'interazione del GO con inquinanti ambientali, che andrebbe ulteriormente investigato. Nel complesso, questi dati contribuiscono a prevedere non solo il comportamento dei GRMs durante i saggi ecotossicologici, un fattore importante per una corretta interpretazione dei risultati della TG 201, ma anche il comportamento e il destino dei GRMs in ambienti d'acqua dolce.
Analisi del comportamenti di materiali grafenici in ambienti acquosi: da protocolli standard a implicazioni ambientali in sistemi d'acqua dolce
CAORSI, GIADA
2024
Abstract
Thanks to their unique physicochemical properties, graphene-related materials (GRMs) are used in many innovative fields. The increasing development of GRMs-containing products and resulting widespread availability could lead to unintended GRMs release with unknown consequences for the environment. According to the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulation, all new substances manufactured in the European Union must undergo a battery of ecotoxicological bioassays from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to assess their risk to human health and environment, i.e. the OECD Test Guidelines (TG). Importantly, the TGs suggested to assess the risk for freshwater environments, i.e. TGs 201, 202, and 203, were developed for water-soluble substances and have an applicability criterion requiring that the concentration of tested substances does not change more than ± 20 % during the testing time. However, GRMs dispersed in aqueous media tend to aggregate and settle, changing their concentration and bioavailability over time. For this reason, the aim of my PhD project is to assess the GRMs behaviour in both synthetic and natural media, posing special attention to algal ecotoxicity. To this end, several laboratory experiments were conducted to verify the applicability of the “OECD TG 201: Freshwater algae and cyanobacteria growth inhibition test” to few-layers graphene (FLG), graphene oxide (GO), and reduced GO (rGO), focusing on possible factors affecting the GRMs dispersion stability (GDS): (i) particles composition and (ii) concentration, (iii) turbulence, (iv) medium composition, and (v) the presence of the algae, Raphidocelis subcapitata, the most commonly used green alga of this TG. First, a suitable methodological approach has been developed to assess the TG 201 test endpoints, which involves the utilization of flow cytometry (FCM), Turbiscan, and Utermöhl sedimentation chambers (USC). The results reported high aggregation and sedimentation of GRMs, and the GDS mainly depended on the GRMs physicochemical nature: FLG had the fastest aggregation and sedimentation, while GO was the most stable. Unfortunately, none of the tested modifications to exposure conditions ensured the fulfilment of the TG 201 stability requirement. However, it was possible to determine a delayed starting time of the test after which GRMs dispersions do not change significantly due to aggregation and sedimentation phenomena. Furthermore, the GRMs re-characterization showed a decrease in dimensions of flakes remaining in dispersion, an important factor influencing both the bioavailability and the potential environmental fate. Due to the unstable nature of GRMs in aqueous media, their fate in freshwater environments has been also investigated. First, by evaluating their behaviour in different commercial mineral waters to test the effect of the ionic contents on the GDS, and then also in real fresh waters collected from water bodies of Friuli Venezia Giulia. Waters have been collected from different sites, selected for their different environmental characteristics, to test the effect of environmental-like conditions on the GDS. Strong aggregation and sedimentation, even higher than in common test medium (i.e. TG 201 medium) and deionized water, have been observed, potentially due to high NOM, clay and ionic content in the waters. Furthermore, algae exposed to GO in fresh waters samples exhibited significant growth inhibition, possibly as a result of interactions of GO with environmental pollutants, that should be further investigate. These data help predicting not only the GRMs behaviour during ecotoxicological testing, an important factor for a reliable interpretation of TG 201 results, but also the GRMs behaviour and fate in real freshwater environments.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Caorsi Giada_PhD thesis_signed_1.pdf
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/177920
URN:NBN:IT:UNITS-177920