The research intends to analyze the fundamental relationships between the production of value and the distribution of income inside an economic system from the perspective of the Classical political economists like Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx. This methodological perspective is recovered by the economic literature after the publication of Piero Sraffa (1960) with which the analytical knots left unresolved by Ricardo, on the invariant measure of value, and by Marx, on the transformation of values into production prices are dissolved. The work is organized into three independent essays that address the theoretical, methodological and empirical characteristics of the economic analysis based on the surplus approach. The first essay, From Pasinetti: backwards, to the analytical connections between Marx and Sraffa; and forward, to the macro-monetary perspectives of the labour theory of value, reconstructs the framework of the labour theory of value by following the logical passages with which Pasinetti arrives at the solution of the Marxian transformation problem. After Sraffa’s contribution, the conclusion was reached that production prices can be obtained regardless of the labour-value of the commodities and that therefore the labour theory of value is superfluous in determining the distribution of income with the exception of the particular case where the surplus is entirely distributed to the wage workers. However, according to Marx, the labour theory of value is a law of capitalist reproduction which links the production of use-values with the realization of exchange-values whatever the law that rules the distribution of income. The question, therefore, turns on the need to articulate the two levels of the analysis of capitalist systems: the production of the surplus and its composition between wage and profit goods, that can be represented in terms of labour embodied, and the distribution of income, for which production prices must be introduced for evaluating the economic aggregates consistently with the prevailing competitive assumptions put subsequently. Pasinetti (1977) succeeds in this aim starting from a formalization of the Marxian theoretical framework according to the same logic through which Sraffa elaborates the standard system. Pasinetti highlights that any procedure for transforming labour-values into prices must consider the choice of a single or composite commodity whose value does not change in the passage from the value system to the price system, this commodity must therefore be chosen as the numéraire of prices. However, in order to have a 4 complete coincidence between values and prices in Marx’s sense, each numéraire of prices must be chosen consistently with a certain definition of the real wage and vice versa. In this way, it is possible to obtain a double equivalence between the monetary value added and the total direct labour employed and between the aggregate profit and the global surplus-labour extorted in production. From this methodological movement derives the modern macro-monetary approach, notably the Price of Net Product–Unallocated Purchasing Power Labour Theory of Value (PNP–UPP LTV), through which the labour theory of value can be reappraised in the investigation of economic structures. The second essay, Production prices, income distribution and the value structure inside the Italian economy: An input-output investigation, offers an application of the macro-monetary approach presented in the previous essay for the analysis of the Italian economy (2018) based on an input-output table of order 63. The investigation moves following three analytical passages: that of the technical conditions of production captured by the labour values (direct prices), that of the institutional conditions that guarantee the uniformity of the profit rates represented by the prices of production, and finally the one in which the real-world institutional settings lead to the formation of the observed market prices of the economy. The differences of production prices and labour values (direct prices) from the observed market prices in the economy are evaluated and the corresponding wage-profit curve is estimated. The survey shows that direct prices and production prices are able to explain a good percentage of market prices, thus confirming the results of previous research. Some simulations of the effects of the variations in income distribution on the ratios between production prices and labour-values and on key indicators such as the sectoral capital-labour and output-capital ratios are then performed. The analysis of the price changes focuses on the two effects through which the variations in income distribution impact the changes in production prices: the capital intensity effect and the price effect. The former consists of the impact on prices coming from the distance of the sectoral capital-labour ratios from the capital intensity of the commodity-numéraire, the second consists of the impact on prices coming from the simultaneous revaluation of the price of the means of production. Thanks to the use of Sraffian standard commodity, that when chosen as numéraire of prices has the advantage of deleting the disturbances effects deriving from the price variation of the numéraire-commodity, we observe how the trajectories 5 followed by the prices to the variations in income distribution are sufficiently predictable to the extent that the capital intensity effect prevails over the price effect in most cases, while the feedback effect of the revaluation of the means of production are often negligible. The third essay, Self-replacing prices with alternative market structures and the methodological reappraisal of the Sraffian standard system, focuses on the rules of self-replacing price formation in the framework of non-uniform rates of profit. Existing literature agrees that the role of the standard commodity can be neglected because, when the assumption of uniformity of profit rates is removed, its properties lose their usefulness of making the distributive relation transparent, i.e. independent of prices. between wages and the rate of profit. This contribution puts forward the hypothesis of the possibility that the standard system can regain methodological success for the descriptive purposes of economic analysis in a selfreplacing price system with non-uniform profit rates. A computational procedure is developed to construct the standard system as an “equivalent system” showing the necessary distribution of income that allows the self-replacement of the system while remaining independent of the level and structure of prices, profit rates and any institutional mechanisms or constraints that influence their variations. Notably, we highlight the fact that the general rate of profit, based on the hypothetical situation of perfect competition, acquires a deeper theoretical meaning than the ex post measure of the average of sectoral profit rates and can be obtained within the standard system to carry out comparative assessments on the observed market structure inside the economy.
La ricerca intende analizzare le relazioni fondamentali tra la produzione di valore e la distribuzione del reddito all’interno di un sistema economico a partire dalla prospettiva degli economisti politici classici: Adam Smith, David Ricardo e Karl Marx. Tale prospettiva metodologica viene recuperata dalla letteratura economica dopo la pubblicazione di Piero Sraffa (1960) con cui vengono sciolti i nodi analitici lasciati irrisolti da Ricardo, sulla misura invariante del valore, e da Marx, sulla trasformazione dei valori in prezzi di produzione. L’elaborato è organizzato in tre saggi indipendenti che affrontano i caratteri teorici, metodologici ed empirici dell’analisi economica basata sull’approccio del sovrappiù. Il primo saggio, From Pasinetti: backwards, to the analytical connections between Marx and Sraffa; and forward, to the macro-monetary perspectives of the labour theory of value, ripercorre le vicissitudini della teoria del valore-lavoro seguendo i passaggi logici con cui Pasinetti giunge alla soluzione del problema marxiano della trasformazione dei valori in prezzi. Dopo il contributo di Sraffa, si è giunti alla conclusione che i prezzi di produzione possono essere ottenuti a prescindere dal valore-lavoro delle merci e che dunque la teoria del valore-lavoro è superflua nella determinazione della distribuzione del reddito ad eccezione del caso particolare in cui il sovrappiù viene interamente distribuito ai lavoratori salariati. Tuttavia, secondo Marx la teoria del valore-lavoro è una legge di riproduzione capitalistica che lega la produzione dei valori d’uso alla realizzazione dei valori di scambio qualunque sia la legge che regola la distribuzione del reddito. La questione, pertanto, verte sulla necessità di articolare i due piani dell’analisi del capitalismo: la produzione del sovrappiù e la sua composizione tra beni salario e beni profitto, che può essere rappresentata in termini di lavoro contenuto, e la distribuzione del reddito, per cui si devono introdurre i prezzi di produzione per valutare gli aggregati di merci coerentemente con le ipotesi concorrenziali successivamente poste. Pasinetti (1977) riesce in questo intento a partire da una formalizzazione del quadro teorico marxiano secondo la stessa logica con cui Sraffa elabora il sistema tipo. Pasinetti mette in luce che qualsiasi procedura di trasformazione dei valori-lavoro in prezzi deve considerare la scelta di una merce singola o composita il cui valore non cambia nel passaggio dal sistema dei valori al sistema dei prezzi, questa merce deve pertanto essere scelta come numerario dei prezzi. Tuttavia, per avere una coincidenza completa tra valori e prezzi nel senso di Marx, ogni numerario dei prezzi 2 deve essere scelto coerentemente ad una certa definizione del salario reale e viceversa. In questo modo, è possibile ottenere una doppia equivalenza tra il valore aggiunto monetario e il lavoro diretto complessivamente impiegato e tra il profitto aggregato e il pluslavoro globalmente estorto nella produzione. Da questa movenza metodologica deriva il moderno approccio macro-monetario alla teoria del valore, in particolare la Price of Net Product–Unallocated Purchasing Power Labour Theory of Value (PNP–UPP LTV), attraverso cui la teoria del valore-lavoro può essere introdotta coerentemente nell’indagine delle strutture economica. Il secondo saggio, Production prices, income distribution and the value structure inside the Italian economy: An input-output investigation, offre una applicazione dell’approccio macro-monetario presentato nel capitolo precedente per l’analisi dell’economia italiana (2018) basata su una tavola input-output di ordine 63. L’indagine muove seguendo tre passaggi analitici: quello delle condizioni tecniche di produzione catturate dai valori-lavoro (prezzi diretti), quello delle condizioni istituzionali che garantiscono l’uniformità dei saggi di profitto rappresentate dai prezzi di produzione, e infine quello in cui le reali impostazioni istituzionali conducono alla formazione dei prezzi di mercato osservati nell’economia. Vengono valutate le distanze dei prezzi di produzione e dei valori-lavoro (prezzi diretti) dai prezzi di mercato osservati nel sistema economico e viene stimata la curva salarioprofitto corrispondente. Dall’indagine emerge che i prezzi diretti e i prezzi di produzione riescono a spiegare una buona percentuale dei prezzi di mercato, confermando dunque i risultati delle ricerche precedenti. Vengono poi elaborate alcune simulazioni degli effetti della variazione della distribuzione del reddito sui rapporti tra prezzi di produzione e valori-lavoro e sugli indicatori chiave come i rapporti settoriali capitale-lavoro e output-capitale. L’analisi si concentra su due effetti con i quali la variazione della distribuzione del reddito impatta il cambiamento dei prezzi di produzione: l’effetto intensità di capitale e l’effetto prezzo. Il primo consiste nell’impatto sui prezzi proveniente dalla distanza dei rapporti settoriali capitale-lavoro dal rapporto relativo alla merce-numerario, il secondo consiste nell’impatto sui prezzi proveniente dalla rivalutazione simultanea del prezzo dei mezzi di produzione. Inoltre, grazie all’utilizzo della merce tipo sraffiana nelle simulazioni, che quando scelta come numerario dei prezzi ha il pregio di silenziare gli effetti distorsivi derivanti dalle variazioni del prezzo della mercenumerario, osserviamo come il movimento dei prezzi di produzione, e dunque dei 3 rapporti chiave che dipendono da questi ultimi, sia sufficientemente prevedibile nella misura in cui l’effetto intensità di capitale prevale nella maggior parte dei casi sull’effetto prezzo, mentre l’effetto della rivalutazione dei mezzi di produzione è spesso trascurabile. Il terzo saggio, Self-replacing prices with alternative market structures and the methodological reappraisal of the Sraffian standard system, si concentra sulle regole di formazione dei prezzi di riproduzione in un contesto di saggi di profitto non-uniformi. La letteratura esistente concorda sul fatto che il ruolo della merce tipo può essere trascurato perché, quando si viene rimossa l’ipotesi di uniformità dei saggi di profitto, le sue proprietà perdono la loro utilità di rendere trasparente, cioè indipendente dai prezzi, la relazione distributiva tra salario e saggio di profitto. Questo contributo avanza l'ipotesi della possibilità che il sistema tipo possa riacquistare un successo metodologico ai fini descrittivi dell’analisi economica in un sistema dei prezzi di riproduzione con saggi di profitto non-uniformi. Viene elaborata una procedura computazionale per costruire il sistema tipo come “sistema equivalente” che mostra la necessaria distribuzione del reddito che consente l'autoriproduzione del sistema economico rimanendo indipendente dal livello e dalla struttura dei prezzi, dei tassi di profitto e da eventuali meccanismi istituzionali o vincoli che influenzano le loro variazioni. In particolare, si evidenzia il fatto che il tasso di profitto generale, basato sulla ipotetica situazione di concorrenza perfetta, acquista un significato teorico più profondo rispetto alla misura ex post della media dei tassi di profitto settoriali e può essere ricavato all’interno del sistema tipo per svolgere valutazioni comparative sulla struttura di mercato osservata nell’economia.
VALUE, PRICES AND DISTRIBUTION COMPUTABLE METHODS FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF LONG-PERIOD ECONOMIC STRUCTURES
ORO, GIANMARCO
2023
Abstract
The research intends to analyze the fundamental relationships between the production of value and the distribution of income inside an economic system from the perspective of the Classical political economists like Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx. This methodological perspective is recovered by the economic literature after the publication of Piero Sraffa (1960) with which the analytical knots left unresolved by Ricardo, on the invariant measure of value, and by Marx, on the transformation of values into production prices are dissolved. The work is organized into three independent essays that address the theoretical, methodological and empirical characteristics of the economic analysis based on the surplus approach. The first essay, From Pasinetti: backwards, to the analytical connections between Marx and Sraffa; and forward, to the macro-monetary perspectives of the labour theory of value, reconstructs the framework of the labour theory of value by following the logical passages with which Pasinetti arrives at the solution of the Marxian transformation problem. After Sraffa’s contribution, the conclusion was reached that production prices can be obtained regardless of the labour-value of the commodities and that therefore the labour theory of value is superfluous in determining the distribution of income with the exception of the particular case where the surplus is entirely distributed to the wage workers. However, according to Marx, the labour theory of value is a law of capitalist reproduction which links the production of use-values with the realization of exchange-values whatever the law that rules the distribution of income. The question, therefore, turns on the need to articulate the two levels of the analysis of capitalist systems: the production of the surplus and its composition between wage and profit goods, that can be represented in terms of labour embodied, and the distribution of income, for which production prices must be introduced for evaluating the economic aggregates consistently with the prevailing competitive assumptions put subsequently. Pasinetti (1977) succeeds in this aim starting from a formalization of the Marxian theoretical framework according to the same logic through which Sraffa elaborates the standard system. Pasinetti highlights that any procedure for transforming labour-values into prices must consider the choice of a single or composite commodity whose value does not change in the passage from the value system to the price system, this commodity must therefore be chosen as the numéraire of prices. However, in order to have a 4 complete coincidence between values and prices in Marx’s sense, each numéraire of prices must be chosen consistently with a certain definition of the real wage and vice versa. In this way, it is possible to obtain a double equivalence between the monetary value added and the total direct labour employed and between the aggregate profit and the global surplus-labour extorted in production. From this methodological movement derives the modern macro-monetary approach, notably the Price of Net Product–Unallocated Purchasing Power Labour Theory of Value (PNP–UPP LTV), through which the labour theory of value can be reappraised in the investigation of economic structures. The second essay, Production prices, income distribution and the value structure inside the Italian economy: An input-output investigation, offers an application of the macro-monetary approach presented in the previous essay for the analysis of the Italian economy (2018) based on an input-output table of order 63. The investigation moves following three analytical passages: that of the technical conditions of production captured by the labour values (direct prices), that of the institutional conditions that guarantee the uniformity of the profit rates represented by the prices of production, and finally the one in which the real-world institutional settings lead to the formation of the observed market prices of the economy. The differences of production prices and labour values (direct prices) from the observed market prices in the economy are evaluated and the corresponding wage-profit curve is estimated. The survey shows that direct prices and production prices are able to explain a good percentage of market prices, thus confirming the results of previous research. Some simulations of the effects of the variations in income distribution on the ratios between production prices and labour-values and on key indicators such as the sectoral capital-labour and output-capital ratios are then performed. The analysis of the price changes focuses on the two effects through which the variations in income distribution impact the changes in production prices: the capital intensity effect and the price effect. The former consists of the impact on prices coming from the distance of the sectoral capital-labour ratios from the capital intensity of the commodity-numéraire, the second consists of the impact on prices coming from the simultaneous revaluation of the price of the means of production. Thanks to the use of Sraffian standard commodity, that when chosen as numéraire of prices has the advantage of deleting the disturbances effects deriving from the price variation of the numéraire-commodity, we observe how the trajectories 5 followed by the prices to the variations in income distribution are sufficiently predictable to the extent that the capital intensity effect prevails over the price effect in most cases, while the feedback effect of the revaluation of the means of production are often negligible. The third essay, Self-replacing prices with alternative market structures and the methodological reappraisal of the Sraffian standard system, focuses on the rules of self-replacing price formation in the framework of non-uniform rates of profit. Existing literature agrees that the role of the standard commodity can be neglected because, when the assumption of uniformity of profit rates is removed, its properties lose their usefulness of making the distributive relation transparent, i.e. independent of prices. between wages and the rate of profit. This contribution puts forward the hypothesis of the possibility that the standard system can regain methodological success for the descriptive purposes of economic analysis in a selfreplacing price system with non-uniform profit rates. A computational procedure is developed to construct the standard system as an “equivalent system” showing the necessary distribution of income that allows the self-replacement of the system while remaining independent of the level and structure of prices, profit rates and any institutional mechanisms or constraints that influence their variations. Notably, we highlight the fact that the general rate of profit, based on the hypothetical situation of perfect competition, acquires a deeper theoretical meaning than the ex post measure of the average of sectoral profit rates and can be obtained within the standard system to carry out comparative assessments on the observed market structure inside the economy.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/194461
URN:NBN:IT:UNIMC-194461