In the case of the Factory at Chorzów, the Permanent Court of International Justice acknowledged that “it is a principle of international law, and even a general conception of the law, that any breach of an engagement involves an obligation to make reparation” . Reparation can take the form of restitution, compensation, satisfaction, rehabilitation or guarantees of non-recurrence and must, as far as possible, “wipe out all the consequences of the illegal act and reestablish the situation which would, in all probability, have existed if that act had not been committed” . With the rise of the individual as a subject of international law in the historical period subsequent to the Second World War, international actors and scholars have increasingly been confronted with the question whether the violation of an international humanitarian law obligation may give rise to the secondary obligation of the responsible State to make reparation not only towards other States, but also towards the individuals who have suffered damages as a result of the violation. Previous studies on this issue have mainly focused on wrongful acts committed in the context of international armed conflicts, thus overlooking the widespread practice developed within the framework of non-international armed conflicts, notably in the aftermath of the Second World War. Nevertheless, studying this practice seems vital in order to understand the current state of international law on the matter, primarily in light of the considerable proportions that the phenomenon of internal conflicts has reached in the second half of the twentieth century. Moreover, the question of the individual right to reparation has characteristics of his own due to the identity between the State responsible for the wrongful act and the State of nationality of the victims in non-international armed conflicts. State practice relative to reparation in non-international armed conflicts finds an important expression in peace agreements aimed at the ending of conflicts negotiated between States and armed groups. The conclusion of this sort of agreements is increasing exponentially, at the same rate of the proliferation of non-international armed conflicts, at the point that hundreds of agreements have been signed in the last seventy years worldwide. Based on these premises the thesis aims at providing new inputs to the debate around the issue of reparation for violations of international humanitarian law in non-international armed conflicts through the empirical analysis of reparation in peace agreements, a study that to my knowledge has never been carried out before. The main research topic this thesis will examine is if and in which way peace agreements address the issue of reparation. A further matter of study that will be pursued is whether and to what extent peace agreements can be considered sources of practice and opinio iuris in the formation and identification of an international custom relative to the individual’s right to reparation for violations of international humanitarian law in non-international armed conflicts. The First Chapter addresses the issue of the State obligation to make reparation for violations of international humanitarian law in the context of non-international armed conflicts. It aims to draw the boundaries of the debate to which the analysis of peace agreements intends to contribute. More in detail, the first part of the chapter verifies whether the obligation to make reparation for violations of international humanitarian law is provided for at the conventional level. The second part examines the State obligation to make reparation towards individuals based on the framework of general rules on State responsibility, as defined in the Draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts adopted by the International Law Commission in 2001. On the one hand, it analyses the main international legal instruments pertaining to the State responsibility towards individuals for violations of international humanitarian law in the context of non-international armed conflicts and, on the other hand, the main orientations of the doctrine. The core part of the thesis (Chapters Second and Third) is devoted to the empirical analysis of the forms of reparation provided for in 797 peace agreements concluded between States and armed groups in the time frame between 1945 and today. More specifically, the first part of the Second Chapter describes the characteristic features of peace agreements and addresses the problems of their nature and legal status. The second part of the chapter identifies the object of the study and illustrates the sources and the analysis methodology used. The Third Chapter examines the characteristic elements of the reparation provisions contained in peace agreements considering the following three axis of research: i) the substantial content of the measures laid down therein in relation to the existing forms of reparation in general international law (restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction, guarantees of non-recurrence); ii) the intensity of the connection existing between each measure and the sphere of the international wrongfulness of an act; and iii) the degree of specificity with which the agreements identify the rules of international humanitarian law for the violation of which reparation measures are provided for. Finally, the Fourth Chapter gives some answers to the questions raised at the beginning of the thesis in light of the findings of the study. It firstly addresses the question of the extent to which peace agreements contain provisions in the matter of reparation and identifies some recurring elements in their content. Secondly, it examines the relevance of peace agreements for the formation and identification of a customary rule relating to the individual right to reparation for violations of international humanitarian law in the context of non-international armed conflicts.
Secondo un principio consuetudinario consacrato dalla Corte permanente di giustizia internazionale nella sentenza del 1928 nell’affare della Fabbrica di Chorzów, dalla violazione di una regola internazionale deriva l’obbligo dello Stato responsabile di riparare il danno derivante dall’illecito. Lo scopo della riparazione, che può assumere la forma della restitutio in integrum, del risarcimento, della soddisfazione, della riabilitazione e delle garanzie di non ripetizione, è quello di cancellare gli effetti della violazione e realizzare la situazione che sarebbe esistita se l’atto illecito non fosse stato compiuto. Con l’emergere dell’individuo quale soggetto del diritto internazionale contemporaneo nel periodo storico successivo al Secondo conflitto mondiale, si è progressivamente imposta all’attenzione degli attori internazionali e della dottrina la questione se la violazione di una regola di diritto internazionale umanitario possa comportare l’obbligo di riparazione dello Stato responsabile non soltanto verso altri Stati, ma anche vis-à-vis gli individui che abbiano subito un danno per effetto dell’illecito. Nell’esaminare la questione, gli studi svolti sinora si sono generalmente concentrati sugli illeciti commessi nel contesto di conflitti armati internazionali, lasciando invece in ombra la ricca prassi che, specialmente dopo il Secondo conflitto mondiale, si è sviluppata nell’ambito dei conflitti armati non internazionali. Nondimeno, lo studio di questa prassi sembra essenziale per comprendere lo stato attuale del diritto internazionale in materia, principalmente in considerazione delle notevoli proporzioni che il fenomeno ha assunto nella seconda metà del Novecento, con una netta prevalenza, nel panorama bellico contemporaneo, dei conflitti armati non internazionali rispetto a quelli internazionali. Inoltre, la questione del diritto individuale alla riparazione assume dei connotati specifici in ragione dell’identità fra Stato autore dell’illecito e Stato di cittadinanza delle vittime nei conflitti armati non internazionali. La prassi relativa alla riparazione nei conflitti armati non internazionali trova una delle sue principali espressioni negli accordi di pace conclusi fra Stati e gruppi armati allo scopo di porre fine al conflitto. La conclusione di questo genere di accordi ha conosciuto una crescita esponenziale di pari passo con il moltiplicarsi dei conflitti armati non internazionali, tanto che centinaia di accordi sono stati firmati negli ultimi settant’anni a livello globale. Muovendo da queste premesse, la tesi intende offrire nuovi spunti al dibattito intorno alla questione dell’obbligo di riparazione per violazioni del diritto internazionale umanitario nei conflitti armati non internazionali attraverso l’analisi empirica degli accordi di pace. A quanto risulta, uno studio della riparazione negli accordi di pace non è sinora mai stato svolto. La principale questione sulla quale il lavoro intende far luce è se e in che modo gli accordi di pace affrontino la questione della riparazione. Una ulteriore questione che viene in esame è se e in che misura essi possano rilevare come espressione della prassi e della opinio iuris degli Stati ai fini della formazione e della identificazione di una consuetudine relativa al diritto individuale alla riparazione per violazioni del diritto internazionale umanitario nei conflitti armati non internazionali. Il Capitolo Primo introduce la questione dell’obbligo di riparazione dello Stato verso l’individuo per violazioni del diritto internazionale umanitario applicabile nei conflitti armati non internazionali, con l’obiettivo non di accertare lo stato del diritto internazionale vigente, ma piuttosto di tracciare i confini del dibattito al quale l’analisi degli accordi di pace intende contribuire. Più specificamente, la prima parte del capitolo verifica se l’obbligo di riparazione formi l’oggetto di disciplina convenzionale; la seconda parte esamina l’obbligo di riparazione dello Stato verso l’individuo nel quadro delle regole generali sulla responsabilità degli Stati, come riflesse nei Draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, adottati dalla Commissione di diritto internazionale nel 2001. In tale contesto vengono esaminati, da un lato, i principali strumenti giuridici internazionali relativi all’obbligo di riparazione dello Stato verso l’individuo per violazioni del diritto internazionale umanitario nei conflitti armati non internazionali e, dall’altro, i principali orientamenti della dottrina. Così inquadrati i termini della questione, la parte centrale della tesi, che si sviluppa nei Capitoli Secondo e Terzo, è dedicata all’analisi empirica delle disposizioni relative alla riparazione contenute nei 797 accordi di pace conclusi fra Stati e gruppi armati nell’arco temporale compreso fra il 1945 e oggi. Più specificamente, la prima parte del Capitolo Secondo descrive gli elementi caratteristici degli accordi di pace e presenta i termini del problema relativo alla loro natura ed efficacia giuridica. La seconda parte del capitolo definisce l’oggetto dello studio ed illustra le fonti e la metodologia di analisi impiegata. Il Capitolo Terzo esamina i profili caratteristici delle disposizioni relative alla riparazione contenute negli accordi di pace alla luce di tre assi di indagine, relativi, rispettivamente, i) al contenuto sostanziale delle misure ivi previste in relazione alle forme di riparazione esistenti in diritto internazionale generale (restituzione, risarcimento, riabilitazione, soddisfazione, garanzie di non ripetizione); ii) al grado di connessione esistente fra ciascuna misura e la sfera dell’illecito internazionale; iii) al grado di specificità con cui gli accordi individuano le regole di diritto internazionale umanitario per la cui violazione sono previste misure di riparazione. Alla luce dei risultati dello studio, il Capitolo Quarto sviluppa alcune considerazioni con riguardo alle questioni prospettate in apertura della tesi. In particolare, la prima parte del Capitolo esamina la questione se il contenuto degli accordi di pace riveli una propensione degli Stati a riconoscere il diritto individuale alla riparazione per violazioni del diritto internazionale umanitario commesse nell’ambito di conflitti armati non internazionali. La seconda parte del Capitolo ha ad oggetto l’ulteriore questione se e in che misura gli accordi possano venire in rilievo come espressione della prassi e della opinio iuris degli Stati ai fini della formazione di una consuetudine internazionale relativa al diritto alla riparazione per violazioni del diritto internazionale umanitario applicabile nei conflitti armati non internazionali.
L’OBBLIGO DI RIPARAZIONE DELLO STATO PER VIOLAZIONI DEL DIRITTO INTERNAZIONALE UMANITARIO NEGLI ACCORDI DI PACE FRA STATI E GRUPPI ARMATI
DE MARZIIS, CECILIA
2021
Abstract
In the case of the Factory at Chorzów, the Permanent Court of International Justice acknowledged that “it is a principle of international law, and even a general conception of the law, that any breach of an engagement involves an obligation to make reparation” . Reparation can take the form of restitution, compensation, satisfaction, rehabilitation or guarantees of non-recurrence and must, as far as possible, “wipe out all the consequences of the illegal act and reestablish the situation which would, in all probability, have existed if that act had not been committed” . With the rise of the individual as a subject of international law in the historical period subsequent to the Second World War, international actors and scholars have increasingly been confronted with the question whether the violation of an international humanitarian law obligation may give rise to the secondary obligation of the responsible State to make reparation not only towards other States, but also towards the individuals who have suffered damages as a result of the violation. Previous studies on this issue have mainly focused on wrongful acts committed in the context of international armed conflicts, thus overlooking the widespread practice developed within the framework of non-international armed conflicts, notably in the aftermath of the Second World War. Nevertheless, studying this practice seems vital in order to understand the current state of international law on the matter, primarily in light of the considerable proportions that the phenomenon of internal conflicts has reached in the second half of the twentieth century. Moreover, the question of the individual right to reparation has characteristics of his own due to the identity between the State responsible for the wrongful act and the State of nationality of the victims in non-international armed conflicts. State practice relative to reparation in non-international armed conflicts finds an important expression in peace agreements aimed at the ending of conflicts negotiated between States and armed groups. The conclusion of this sort of agreements is increasing exponentially, at the same rate of the proliferation of non-international armed conflicts, at the point that hundreds of agreements have been signed in the last seventy years worldwide. Based on these premises the thesis aims at providing new inputs to the debate around the issue of reparation for violations of international humanitarian law in non-international armed conflicts through the empirical analysis of reparation in peace agreements, a study that to my knowledge has never been carried out before. The main research topic this thesis will examine is if and in which way peace agreements address the issue of reparation. A further matter of study that will be pursued is whether and to what extent peace agreements can be considered sources of practice and opinio iuris in the formation and identification of an international custom relative to the individual’s right to reparation for violations of international humanitarian law in non-international armed conflicts. The First Chapter addresses the issue of the State obligation to make reparation for violations of international humanitarian law in the context of non-international armed conflicts. It aims to draw the boundaries of the debate to which the analysis of peace agreements intends to contribute. More in detail, the first part of the chapter verifies whether the obligation to make reparation for violations of international humanitarian law is provided for at the conventional level. The second part examines the State obligation to make reparation towards individuals based on the framework of general rules on State responsibility, as defined in the Draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts adopted by the International Law Commission in 2001. On the one hand, it analyses the main international legal instruments pertaining to the State responsibility towards individuals for violations of international humanitarian law in the context of non-international armed conflicts and, on the other hand, the main orientations of the doctrine. The core part of the thesis (Chapters Second and Third) is devoted to the empirical analysis of the forms of reparation provided for in 797 peace agreements concluded between States and armed groups in the time frame between 1945 and today. More specifically, the first part of the Second Chapter describes the characteristic features of peace agreements and addresses the problems of their nature and legal status. The second part of the chapter identifies the object of the study and illustrates the sources and the analysis methodology used. The Third Chapter examines the characteristic elements of the reparation provisions contained in peace agreements considering the following three axis of research: i) the substantial content of the measures laid down therein in relation to the existing forms of reparation in general international law (restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction, guarantees of non-recurrence); ii) the intensity of the connection existing between each measure and the sphere of the international wrongfulness of an act; and iii) the degree of specificity with which the agreements identify the rules of international humanitarian law for the violation of which reparation measures are provided for. Finally, the Fourth Chapter gives some answers to the questions raised at the beginning of the thesis in light of the findings of the study. It firstly addresses the question of the extent to which peace agreements contain provisions in the matter of reparation and identifies some recurring elements in their content. Secondly, it examines the relevance of peace agreements for the formation and identification of a customary rule relating to the individual right to reparation for violations of international humanitarian law in the context of non-international armed conflicts.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/194680
URN:NBN:IT:UNIMC-194680