In recent decades, under the influence of gender ideology, historical research has increasingly incorporated gender-based violence – particularly male violence against women – into its areas of inquiry. This change has played a crucial role in denaturalising the phenomenon, revealing its complexity and multiple dimensions. Unlike approaches that treat the problem as a matter of immediate crisis, the historical perspective proves particularly valuable in uncovering the social and cultural processes through which such violence is continuously reproduced. This study aims to contribute to the scientific debate on this complex and historically situated topic by examining the phenomenon of rape in a province of the Papal State, in the period between the Restoration and the Unification of Italy. Employing a socio-historical and juridical framework, the research analyses over two hundred criminal trials for "simple," "qualified," "violent," and "attempted" rape, as well as cases involving "offences against modesty." These trials were adjudicated by the Criminal Court of First Instance and the Court of Appeal in the Marche region, specifically within the Apostolic Delegation of Macerata, between 1815 and 1860. This research integrates socio-historical and legal-historical perspectives. Focusing on the crimen stupri, it investigates three interrelated dimensions: social practices, legal norms, and judicial practices, supported by a computational analysis of judicial sources. These sources make it possible to contextualise and examine the legal framework through the lived experiences of women and men involved in judicial proceedings. Interdisciplinarity, a key feature of this study, interweaves social and individual factors with the doctrinal and legislative discourses of the period. This approach not only explores judicial institutions, but also examines the contributions of elite figures who played a crucial role in framing rape as an object of knowledge, meaning and legal debate. The events analysed reveal the cultural tensions of an era characterised by institutional and legislative changes, as well as intellectual debates. Within the interplay of sexual mores, cultural stereotypes, and criminal norms, this study examines the origins of contemporary notions of violent coercion, exploring the underlying logic that shaped the evolution of legal distinctions over time. Reconstructions of female consent are examined through the analysis of persuasio, a legal construct employed by common law jurists to recompose, based on presumptions and beliefs, an orderly subjective situation considered worthy of protection. Although this historical reconstruction should not be limited to a narrow periodisation, the research adopts a thematic focus on the legacy of the 18th and 19th centuries in shaping the science of criminal law with regard to rape legislation. This study seeks to explore the contradictions embedded within procedural systems that endured well beyond the ‘secolo dei Lumi’. Nineteenth-century judges, oscillating between reasoning in terms of a "free and equal" female voluntas and safeguarding only those forms of consent deemed "ordained," appear not to break with the past but rather to intensify its enduring tensions. Through a rigorous analysis of investigative and judicial activities documented in a corpus of sixty case files, this research integrates two levels of inquiry. The first examines individual behaviour, using these sources to explore the complex social practices reflected in the administration of justice. The second delves into the legal and procedural dimensions of criminal law. Employing a mixed qualitative-quantitative approach, supported by advanced computational tools, this study examines several critical dimensions: the sociological analysis of the actors involved, the dynamics of seduction and violence, the temporal and spatial contexts of rape incidents, the duration of judicial proceedings, patterns of acquittals and convictions, the sentences imposed, and the enduring prevalence of extrajudicial settlements. From a narrative perspective, and with due methodological caution, the dossiers enable the exploration of the narrative strategies employed by those involved and the assessment of their degree of awareness – whether instinctive or strategic – yet significant enough to warrant consideration. The investigation proceedings – structured as a mosaic of words, allusions and omissions, questions and answers driven by the primary need to determine the degree of female ‘honesty’ – reflect the tension between the emerging liberal and secular spirit, which was progressively asserting itself in Europe and in other states of preunification Italy, and the enduring legacies of the ancien régime, which continued to permeate the papal reality. A scrupulous analysis of the victims' depositions, thanks to precise computer queries, reveals – beyond the already documented narrative templates – substantial linguistic differences, an expression of the force of reality that sometimes prevails over the standardized procedural rhetoric. Finally, the examination of communicative interactions, and how they reflect and influence their cultural domains, allows us to read, through the use of the sociological category of "degradation rituals", the testimonies and defenses of the accused which, from this perspective, become the scene of the representation of the social "degradation" of women victims of rape. Ultimately, this study examines the profound changes in mentalities, social practices, legal frameworks, and judicial processes, beginning with the evolution of the term "rape" itself. It seeks to interrogate the past through the lens of the present, positioning historical developments at an appropriate distance while emphasising the intricate interconnections between social customs, cultural stereotypes, and criminal law on this subject. The need for a long-term reconstruction, aimed at providing a more precise contextualisation of the phenomenon under investigation, reveals that despite shifts in meaning, a persistent continuity endures. Rather than dissolving, this continuity has crystallised into modern stereotypes. The period under examination, with its distinctive features, has further contributed to the justification and consolidation of enduring commonplaces about women, often characterised as «imbued with a marked distrust of their (allegedly) "indecipherable" inner will». This awareness, developed through an in-depth long-term analysis, sheds light on the foundational elements of a legal culture which, during the decline of the Papal State, while modernising in form, remained deeply embedded in the substance of ancien régime legal traditions.
Negli ultimi decenni, sullo sfondo di un’ideologia di genere, la riflessione storica ha progressivamente incluso la violenza di genere, quella maschile contro le donne in particolare, tra i propri ambiti di ricerca, svolgendo un ruolo cruciale nel denaturalizzare il fenomeno, svelandone la complessità e le molteplici dimensioni. Contrariamente alla tendenza a trattare la questione in termini emergenziali, la prospettiva storica si dimostra particolarmente preziosa per la sua capacità di far emergere i processi sociali e culturali attraverso cui il fenomeno perpetuamente si realizza. Nel tentativo di contribuire al dibattito scientifico su una questione tanto articolata, appunto perché "storicamente situata", il presente progetto esplora il fenomeno dello stupro in una provincia dello Stato della Chiesa negli anni tra la Restaurazione e l’Unità, attraverso un’analisi sociale e storico-giuridica. Oltre duecento sono i processi penali per stupro "semplice", "qualificato", "violento", "tentato" e "oltraggio al pudore", giudicati dal Tribunale criminale di prima istanza e dal Tribunale di appellazione per le Marche, solo nella Delegazione apostolica di Macerata tra 1815 e 1860. In una prospettiva in cui l’analisi storico-sociale non trascuri quella storico-giuridica, la ricerca ha inteso valorizzare l’integrazione del contributo di entrambe le discipline, contemperando, in relazione al crimen stupri, tre diversi aspetti: quello delle pratiche sociali, quello normativo e quello della prassi giudiziaria, supportati da un’analisi computazionale delle fonti giudiziarie. Quelle fonti che, come è stato osservato, consentono di riferire il quadro normativo a un contesto specifico e sottoporlo a verifica attraverso le donne e gli uomini coinvolti in un procedimento giudiziario1. L’interdisciplinarità costituisce il carattere fondativo della ricerca: intrecciando i fattori sociali e individuali con i linguaggi scientifici della dottrina e della legislazione, si è indagato l’approccio delle istituzioni giudiziarie, come anche quello di coloro che, espressione dell’élite dell’epoca, hanno contribuito a configurare lo stupro come oggetto di conoscenza, rilevanza e discussione giuridica. Le vicende esaminate riflettono le tensioni culturali di un’epoca caratterizzata da significativi cambiamenti istituzionali e legislativi, nonché da vivaci dibattiti intellettuali. Nel profondo intreccio tra costumi sessuali, stereotipi culturali e norme penali, l’elaborato riflette in primis sulla genesi dell’attuale costrizione violenta, esplorando la logica sottostante che, in età moderna, ha ispirato coloro che hanno formulato le distinzioni giuridiche susseguitesi nel tempo. Le ricostruzioni in tema di consenso femminile sono state ripercorse attraverso l’analisi della persuasio, peculiare spazio giuridico utilizzato dai giuristi di diritto comune per ricomporre, in base a presunzioni e convinzioni, una situazione soggettiva ordinata e meritevole di tutela. Sebbene una simile ricostruzione storica non andrebbe confinata entro i limiti di una stretta periodizzazione, seguendo un preciso criterio tematico, ci si concentra sull’eredità che, tra Settecento e Ottocento, plasma la scienza penalistica in materia di legislazione sullo stupro. L’elaborato si sviluppa attorno alla volontà di riflettere sulle contraddizioni che il sistema processuale e probatorio porta con sé, ben oltre la svolta proclamata dal ‘secolo dei Lumi’: ora intenti a ragionare in termini di ‘libera e uguale’ voluntas femminile, ora inclini a tutelare solo quella percepita come ‘ordinata’, i giudici ottocenteschi più che recidere il legame col passato sembrano esasperarlo. Attraverso una rigorosa analisi dell’attività istruttoria e giudicante condotta su un corpus di sessanta fascicoli processuali, si intrecciano poi due distinti livelli di indagine: quello che considera i comportamenti individuali e utilizza tale fonte per esplorare le complesse pratiche sociali di cui la giustizia rappresenta una delle manifestazioni, e quello che approfondisce la normativa penale e la procedura giudiziaria. Attraverso un approccio quali-quantitativo, supportato da precisi strumenti informatici, la ricerca affronta: l’analisi sociologica delle attrici e degli attori sociali coinvolti, le dinamiche di seduzione e violenza, i tempi e i luoghi degli episodi di stupro, quelli delle procedure giudiziarie; le sentenze di assoluzione e condanna, le pene inflitte e le soluzioni extragiudiziali ancora diffuse. Da un punto di vista narrativo, con le dovute cautele metodologiche, le carte si configurano come un osservatorio privilegiato per esplorare le strategie narrative messe in atto dalle parti e indagare il loro grado di consapevolezza, sia essa istintiva o strategica, ma comunque tale da essere presa in considerazione. Gli atti dell’istruttoria – articolati sull’incastro di parole, accenni, omissioni e inglobati in una struttura costituita dall’alternarsi di espressioni, domande e risposte, scandite dalla primaria necessità di determinare il grado di onestà femminile – riflettono la tensione tra l’emergente spirito liberale e laico, che progressivamente si afferma in Europa e in altri Stati della penisola, e i persistenti retaggi dell’antico regime, dai quali la realtà pontificia è ancora permeata. Un’attenta analisi delle deposizioni delle donne vittime di stupro "violento", grazie a precise interrogazioni informatiche, rivela – al di là dei canovacci narrativi già documentati – differenze linguistiche sostanziali, espressione della forza della realtà che, qua e là, prevale sulla standardizzata retorica processuale. Infine, l’esame delle interazioni comunicative, e di come esse riflettano e influenzino domini culturali ivi intessuti, consente di leggere, attraverso l’uso della categoria sociologica dei "rituali di degradazione", le testimonianze e le difese degli imputati che, in tale prospettiva, diventano la scena sullo sfondo della quale viene rappresentata la degradazione sociale delle vittime di stupro. In definitiva, nel riconoscere i mutamenti intervenuti nelle mentalità, nelle pratiche sociali, nel diritto e nella prassi giudiziaria, a partire dall’evoluzione stessa del termine "stupro", l’elaborato ha inteso volgere lo sguardo al passato da una prospettiva presente; ricollocando il primo alla giusta distanza dal secondo, ma evidenziando, al contempo, l’interrelazione che lega costumi sociali, stereotipi culturali e norme penali in materia. La necessità di una ricostruzione di lungo periodo, volta a una più precisa contestualizzazione del fenomeno indagato, ha permesso di cogliere come, pur nei cambiamenti di significato, permanga una linea di continuità che, invece, si cristallizza, fino a diventare stereotipo dei giorni nostri. Anche l’epoca esaminata, con le sue peculiarità, ha contribuito a giustificare e consolidare luoghi comuni sulla figura femminile, «intrisi di una marcata diffidenza nei confronti del suo (asseritamente) ‘indecifrabile’ volere interiore»2. Tale consapevolezza, proprio perché risultato di un’analisi di lungo periodo, ha messo ancora di più in evidenza gli elementi essenziali di una cultura giuridica che nel tramonto dello Stato pontificio, seppur modernizzata nella forma, risulta essere ancora pregna nella sostanza della cultura giuridica di antico regime.
Le parole dello stupro. Un’analisi computazionale dei processi per crimen stupri nell’Italia preunitaria
PETROSELLI, BENEDETTA
2025
Abstract
In recent decades, under the influence of gender ideology, historical research has increasingly incorporated gender-based violence – particularly male violence against women – into its areas of inquiry. This change has played a crucial role in denaturalising the phenomenon, revealing its complexity and multiple dimensions. Unlike approaches that treat the problem as a matter of immediate crisis, the historical perspective proves particularly valuable in uncovering the social and cultural processes through which such violence is continuously reproduced. This study aims to contribute to the scientific debate on this complex and historically situated topic by examining the phenomenon of rape in a province of the Papal State, in the period between the Restoration and the Unification of Italy. Employing a socio-historical and juridical framework, the research analyses over two hundred criminal trials for "simple," "qualified," "violent," and "attempted" rape, as well as cases involving "offences against modesty." These trials were adjudicated by the Criminal Court of First Instance and the Court of Appeal in the Marche region, specifically within the Apostolic Delegation of Macerata, between 1815 and 1860. This research integrates socio-historical and legal-historical perspectives. Focusing on the crimen stupri, it investigates three interrelated dimensions: social practices, legal norms, and judicial practices, supported by a computational analysis of judicial sources. These sources make it possible to contextualise and examine the legal framework through the lived experiences of women and men involved in judicial proceedings. Interdisciplinarity, a key feature of this study, interweaves social and individual factors with the doctrinal and legislative discourses of the period. This approach not only explores judicial institutions, but also examines the contributions of elite figures who played a crucial role in framing rape as an object of knowledge, meaning and legal debate. The events analysed reveal the cultural tensions of an era characterised by institutional and legislative changes, as well as intellectual debates. Within the interplay of sexual mores, cultural stereotypes, and criminal norms, this study examines the origins of contemporary notions of violent coercion, exploring the underlying logic that shaped the evolution of legal distinctions over time. Reconstructions of female consent are examined through the analysis of persuasio, a legal construct employed by common law jurists to recompose, based on presumptions and beliefs, an orderly subjective situation considered worthy of protection. Although this historical reconstruction should not be limited to a narrow periodisation, the research adopts a thematic focus on the legacy of the 18th and 19th centuries in shaping the science of criminal law with regard to rape legislation. This study seeks to explore the contradictions embedded within procedural systems that endured well beyond the ‘secolo dei Lumi’. Nineteenth-century judges, oscillating between reasoning in terms of a "free and equal" female voluntas and safeguarding only those forms of consent deemed "ordained," appear not to break with the past but rather to intensify its enduring tensions. Through a rigorous analysis of investigative and judicial activities documented in a corpus of sixty case files, this research integrates two levels of inquiry. The first examines individual behaviour, using these sources to explore the complex social practices reflected in the administration of justice. The second delves into the legal and procedural dimensions of criminal law. Employing a mixed qualitative-quantitative approach, supported by advanced computational tools, this study examines several critical dimensions: the sociological analysis of the actors involved, the dynamics of seduction and violence, the temporal and spatial contexts of rape incidents, the duration of judicial proceedings, patterns of acquittals and convictions, the sentences imposed, and the enduring prevalence of extrajudicial settlements. From a narrative perspective, and with due methodological caution, the dossiers enable the exploration of the narrative strategies employed by those involved and the assessment of their degree of awareness – whether instinctive or strategic – yet significant enough to warrant consideration. The investigation proceedings – structured as a mosaic of words, allusions and omissions, questions and answers driven by the primary need to determine the degree of female ‘honesty’ – reflect the tension between the emerging liberal and secular spirit, which was progressively asserting itself in Europe and in other states of preunification Italy, and the enduring legacies of the ancien régime, which continued to permeate the papal reality. A scrupulous analysis of the victims' depositions, thanks to precise computer queries, reveals – beyond the already documented narrative templates – substantial linguistic differences, an expression of the force of reality that sometimes prevails over the standardized procedural rhetoric. Finally, the examination of communicative interactions, and how they reflect and influence their cultural domains, allows us to read, through the use of the sociological category of "degradation rituals", the testimonies and defenses of the accused which, from this perspective, become the scene of the representation of the social "degradation" of women victims of rape. Ultimately, this study examines the profound changes in mentalities, social practices, legal frameworks, and judicial processes, beginning with the evolution of the term "rape" itself. It seeks to interrogate the past through the lens of the present, positioning historical developments at an appropriate distance while emphasising the intricate interconnections between social customs, cultural stereotypes, and criminal law on this subject. The need for a long-term reconstruction, aimed at providing a more precise contextualisation of the phenomenon under investigation, reveals that despite shifts in meaning, a persistent continuity endures. Rather than dissolving, this continuity has crystallised into modern stereotypes. The period under examination, with its distinctive features, has further contributed to the justification and consolidation of enduring commonplaces about women, often characterised as «imbued with a marked distrust of their (allegedly) "indecipherable" inner will». This awareness, developed through an in-depth long-term analysis, sheds light on the foundational elements of a legal culture which, during the decline of the Papal State, while modernising in form, remained deeply embedded in the substance of ancien régime legal traditions.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/202241
URN:NBN:IT:UNIMC-202241