The primary aim of this dissertation is to analyse counterfactuals as a literary device and explore their cognitive processing by both L1 (native) and L2 (second language) readers. It proposes a model for understanding how readers cognitively engage with literary counterfactuals - alternative scenarios in literature that could have happened but did not. This analysis encompasses both embedded counterfactuals and counterfactual historical fiction. Counterfactuals as a literary device are examined on two levels. At the micro level, they appear as a character’s or narrator’s reflections on events that might have occurred but did not. At the macro level, counterfactuality shapes the entire narrative by placing the story in an alternative historical context. The former, termed “disnarrated”, depicts unactualised past events within fiction, while the latter, known as “counterfactual historical fiction”, reimagines actual historical events that never transpired. To achieve this goal, the study employs a multifaceted methodology. The possible worlds framework is utilised to propose a novel model of cognitive engagement with counterfactuals. The model’s feasibility is first tested using two literary texts: The Snows of Kilimanjaro by Ernest Hemingway (1936) and Fatherland by Robert Harris (1992). Subsequently, an empirical investigation using eye tracking, complemented by self-report questionnaires, is conducted to examine how readers engage with literary counterfactuals. Additionally, linguistic analysis is employed to explore the form and meaning of counterfactuals, focusing on the complex processing demands they place on L2 readers. The findings indicate that while processing counterfactuals in literature, readers engage in cognitive processes such as imagination, comparison, evaluation, and emotional response. When encountering the disnarrated, readers contrast the textual actual world with its alternatives, while in counterfactual historical fiction, they contrast the actual historical world with its fictional counterpart. Notably, fictional recentring plays a critical role in counterfactual historical fiction, preventing readers from constantly comparing the two worlds. Moreover, literary counterfactuals are found to be emotionally engaging for readers. The linguistic analysis reveals that counterfactuals function as deviations that foreground the narrative through their formal features and semantics, requiring additional cognitive effort from L2 readers. However, L2 readers can fully comprehend literary counterfactuals without significant influence from their L1. In conclusion, the dissertation demonstrates that counterfactuals are potent tools for enriching literary texts by enhancing their semantic depth and emotional resonance. Although they are cognitively demanding to process, the effect of L1 on L2 readers’ comprehension is minimal.
L’obiettivo principale di questa tesi è analizzare i controfattuali come dispositivo letterario ed esplorarne l’elaborazione cognitiva da parte di lettori L1 (madrelingua) e L2 (in lingua seconda). Viene proposto un modello per comprendere in che modo i controfattuali letterari (ovvero quegli scenari alternativi nella narrativa che avrebbero potuto verificarsi ma non sono accaduti) siano processati a livello cognitivo. L’analisi include sia i controfattuali incorporati nel testo, sia la narrativa storica controfattuale. I controfattuali come dispositivo letterario sono esaminati su due livelli. A livello micro, si manifestano come riflessioni di un personaggio o del narratore su eventi che avrebbero potuto accadere ma non sono accaduti. A livello macro, la controfattualità struttura l’intera narrazione collocando la storia in un contesto storico alternativo. I primi, definiti “disnarrati”, rappresentano eventi passati non realizzati all’interno della finzione, mentre i secondi, noti come “narrativa storica controfattuale”, rielaborano eventi storici realmente accaduti che, nel testo, non si sono mai verificati. Per raggiungere questo obiettivo, lo studio impiega una metodologia multifattoriale. Il paradigma dei mondi possibili viene utilizzato per proporre un nuovo modello di coinvolgimento cognitivo con i controfattuali. La fattibilità del modello è inizialmente testata su due testi letterari: The Snows of Kilimanjaro di Ernest Hemingway (1936) e Fatherland di Robert Harris (1992). In seguito, un’indagine empirica basata su eye tracking, integrata da questionari autovalutativi, viene condotta per esaminare come i lettori si rapportino ai controfattuali letterari. Inoltre, un’analisi linguistica approfondisce la forma e il significato dei controfattuali, concentrandosi concentrandosi sui costi cognitivi complessi che essi impongono ai lettori L2. I risultati indicano che, durante l’elaborazione dei controfattuali nella letteratura, i lettori attivano processi cognitivi come immaginazione, confronto, valutazione e risposta emotiva. Di fronte ai disnarrati, i lettori confrontano il mondo attuale testuale con le sue alternative, mentre nella narrativa storica controfattuale confrontano il mondo storico reale con la sua versione fittizia. In quest’ultimo caso, il “ricentramento finzionale” svolge un ruolo cruciale, evitando che i lettori confrontino costantemente i due mondi. Inoltre, i controfattuali letterari risultano emotivamente coinvolgenti per i lettori. L’analisi linguistica rivela che i controfattuali funzionano come deviazioni che mettono in rilievo la narrazione attraverso le loro caratteristiche formali e semantiche, richiedendo uno sforzo cognitivo maggiore ai lettori L2. Tuttavia, i lettori L2 sono in grado di comprendere appieno i controfattuali letterari senza un’influenza significativa della loro L1. In conclusione, la tesi dimostra che i controfattuali sono strumenti potenti per arricchire i testi letterari, potenziandone la profondità semantica e la risonanza emotiva. Sebbene siano cognitivamente impegnativi, l’effetto della L1 sulla comprensione dei lettori L2 è minimo.
Counterfactuals in literature: L2 readers' perception and evaluation
KAKIMOVA, Ainur
2025
Abstract
The primary aim of this dissertation is to analyse counterfactuals as a literary device and explore their cognitive processing by both L1 (native) and L2 (second language) readers. It proposes a model for understanding how readers cognitively engage with literary counterfactuals - alternative scenarios in literature that could have happened but did not. This analysis encompasses both embedded counterfactuals and counterfactual historical fiction. Counterfactuals as a literary device are examined on two levels. At the micro level, they appear as a character’s or narrator’s reflections on events that might have occurred but did not. At the macro level, counterfactuality shapes the entire narrative by placing the story in an alternative historical context. The former, termed “disnarrated”, depicts unactualised past events within fiction, while the latter, known as “counterfactual historical fiction”, reimagines actual historical events that never transpired. To achieve this goal, the study employs a multifaceted methodology. The possible worlds framework is utilised to propose a novel model of cognitive engagement with counterfactuals. The model’s feasibility is first tested using two literary texts: The Snows of Kilimanjaro by Ernest Hemingway (1936) and Fatherland by Robert Harris (1992). Subsequently, an empirical investigation using eye tracking, complemented by self-report questionnaires, is conducted to examine how readers engage with literary counterfactuals. Additionally, linguistic analysis is employed to explore the form and meaning of counterfactuals, focusing on the complex processing demands they place on L2 readers. The findings indicate that while processing counterfactuals in literature, readers engage in cognitive processes such as imagination, comparison, evaluation, and emotional response. When encountering the disnarrated, readers contrast the textual actual world with its alternatives, while in counterfactual historical fiction, they contrast the actual historical world with its fictional counterpart. Notably, fictional recentring plays a critical role in counterfactual historical fiction, preventing readers from constantly comparing the two worlds. Moreover, literary counterfactuals are found to be emotionally engaging for readers. The linguistic analysis reveals that counterfactuals function as deviations that foreground the narrative through their formal features and semantics, requiring additional cognitive effort from L2 readers. However, L2 readers can fully comprehend literary counterfactuals without significant influence from their L1. In conclusion, the dissertation demonstrates that counterfactuals are potent tools for enriching literary texts by enhancing their semantic depth and emotional resonance. Although they are cognitively demanding to process, the effect of L1 on L2 readers’ comprehension is minimal.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/208569
URN:NBN:IT:UNIVR-208569