The thesis focuses on the concept of individual responsibility, arguing that it is one of the core elements in the process of welfare state reform that started in the 1980s. In a changing scenario characterised by fiscal constraints, the establishment of a globalised economic-political dimension and the emergence of new social needs and risks, it was felt that the role of the welfare state should also change. In fact, the Beveridgean welfare state was designed to meet the needs of the post-war society by securing social rights for all citizens, also favored by the rapid economic growth. However, the major changes affecting the labour market, such as increasing flexibility and precarisation, clashed with a right-oriented welfare state designed to compensate for market failures. On the contrary, the debate on the welfare state and the actual policy implementation pointed to a new role for the welfare state, i.e. to support these changes in the labour market by fostering the reintegration of able-bodied welfare recipients into the labour market (as in the case of workfare measures) or by focusing on developing their flexibility and multi-skilling (as in the case of social investment). The attention is therefore on the activation of recipients in the name of respect for the duties and reciprocity that each individual has towards the State and the community. Within this framework, the concept of individual responsibility is emphasised. Indeed, it is the responsibility of the individual, supported by the state through welfare measures, to find his role in society and especially in the labour market, and if the individual does not commit himself to this, he can be held responsible for the failure. The consequence is a limitation of state help for those who are considered responsible for their situation. The thesis claims that this emphasis on individual responsibility does not only concern the concrete dimension of the welfare measures, but also a change in the rationale behind the welfare state. This has been supported by the merging of the sociological literature on the welfare state with the philosophical literature on social justice and egalitarianism. Indeed, a common path towards the centrality of the concept of individual responsibility has emerged on both a political and a theoretical level, and the idea has gained a general consensus from both the right and the left: on the one hand from the conservative parties and the neo-liberal thinkers, and on the other from the New Labour Party with the Third Way and the luck-egalitarian theorists. An equal and just society could only be achieved by taking due account of individual responsibility; on the contrary, it would be unfair not to take account of the different degrees of responsibility people have for their circumstances. The thesis is structured as follows. The first chapter focuses on the sociological analysis of the new welfare state transformations that began in the 1980s. In the first section, the history of the welfare state is reconstructed in order to contextualise the novelties of the new idea of welfare compared to the previous ones. From the first social policies implemented in Prussia at the end of the nineteenth century, to their maximum expansion after the Second World War, to the current welfare states, there have been many changes both in the policies implemented and in the objectives set. The second section analyses the relationship between rights and duties in welfare policies. Indeed, one of the justifications for the welfare reforms is the need to rebalance an unbalanced relationship. In the Beveridgeian welfare state, the emphasis would have been too much on the side of rights and too little on the side of duties. The Marshallian conception of social rights as a fundamental component in guaranteeing full citizenship and access to social life and the consequences of the new emphasis on duties are discussed. The third section then turns to the merits of the new welfare policies. It analyses the central role given to individual responsibility and how its meaning has changed in relation to the Beveridgean welfare state. Finally, the implications of this shift for actual policy are explored. The second chapter focuses instead on the philosophical analysis of egalitarian theory and the role of individual responsibility in it. The first section examines Rawls's principles of justice to argue that they could provide the basis for justifying the welfare state. It is also shown that there is no account of individual responsibility in his theory. In the second chapter, the luck egalitarian theory is analysed. The differences with Rawlsian egalitarianism are highlighted and the central role of the concept of individual responsibility is explained. The third section analyses another account of egalitarianism, namely relational egalitarianism, in order to highlight the limitations of luck egalitarianism. Finally, the fourth section considers the free will scepticism debate. Indeed, the fact that it is impossible to fully determine the extent to which decisions and actions originate in people's will or are instead strongly influenced by external factors calls into question the luck egalitarian claim of individual responsibility. Finally, the third chapter focuses on empirical analysis. In order to understand the real impact that the new welfare concept has already had on the welfare state regimes, with a particular focus on the concept of individual responsibility, the public speeches of the Prime Ministers of Italy, the United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden are analysed. It is argued that the emergency situation of the pandemic forced the individual countries to base their responses on the previous concepts, which at the time were related to the type of welfare regime to which one belonged. It is therefore possible to distinguish between countries that emphasised an active concept of responsibility and others that emphasised a passive one. The first section presents the theoretical framework, the second section explains the selection of case studies and the pandemic context of each country, and the third section explains the method of analysis and data selection. Finally, the fourth section presents the analysis of the data and the conclusions.
La tesi si concentra sull’analisi del concetto di responsabilità individual, ritenuto essere uno degli elementi centrali al processo di riforma del welfare state che ha avuto origine negli anni ottanta. In un periodo di importanti trasformazioni, su tutte la fine del periodo di grande crescita economica e la completa affermazione della dimensione politico-economica globale, emergono nuovi bisogni e rischi sociali. Alla luce di questo in molti sostennero la necessità di un cambio di ruolo per il welfare state. Il welfare state beveridgiano era stato infatti concepito per rispondere alle esigenze di una società che usciva dalla guerra mondiale e, favorito dalla rapida crescita economica, l’obiettivo era garantire diritti sociali a tutti i cittadini. Tuttavia, nel nuovo contesto gli importanti cambiamenti hanno modificato sensibilmente il mercato del lavoro, rendendolo sempre più flessibile e precario, con la conseguenza di rendere meno efficace un welfare state orientato alla garanzia di diritti per tutti e progettato per compensare i fallimenti del mercato. Al contrario, sia nel dibattito che nella attuazione delle politiche sociali, un nuovo ruolo per il welfare state è emerso: supportare le trasformazioni avvenute nel mercato del lavoro, promuovendo il reinserimento dei beneficiari nel mercato del lavoro (come nel caso delle misure di workfare) o promuovendo la loro fomazione multi-skill così da essere in grado di adattarsi alla crescente richiesta di flessibilità (come nel caso degli investimenti sociali). Le nuove misure si concentrano allora sull'attivazione dei beneficiari con l’obiettivo di promuovere i doveri connessi ai diritti e la reciprocità che ogni individuo ha nei confronti dello Stato e della comunità. E’ in questo quadro che il concetto di responsabilità individuale è enfatizzato. Infatti, secondo questa visione, è responsabilità dell'individuo, sostenuto dallo Stato attraverso le misure di welfare, trovare il proprio ruolo nella società e soprattutto nel mercato del lavoro, e se l'individuo non si impegna in questo senso, è ritenuto responsabile nel caso di non riuscita. La conseguenza è una limitazione dell'aiuto pubblico, quindi l’accesso alle misure di welfare, per coloro che sono considerati responsabili della situazione in cui si trovano. La tesi sostiene che questa enfatizzazione del concetto di responsabilità individuale non riguardi esclusivamente la dimensione concreta delle politiche di welfare, ma che comporti un cambiamento nella logica stessa alla base dell’idea di stato sociale. Per sostenere questo punto di vista, la letteratura sociologica sul welfare state è stata affiancata alla letteratura filosofica sulla giustizia sociale e l'egalitarismo. In entrambi i dibatti infatti è presente una simile evoluzione del ragionamento che pone la centralità del concetto di responsabilità individuale. Inoltre questa convergenza vede un consenso generale sia a destra che a sinistra: da un lato dei partiti conservatori e dei teorici neoliberisti, e dall'altro anche dei partiti di sinistra come il New Labour Party e dei teorici dell’egalitarismo della sorte (luck egalitarians). E’ convinzione comune che una società equa e giusta possa essere raggiunta solo dando la giusta considerazione alla responsabilità individuale di ciascuno; al contrario, sarebbe ingiusto non tenere conto dei diversi gradi di responsabilità esercitati dai singoli individui e la conseguente responsabilità rispetto alle situazioni in cui si trovano. La tesi è strutturata come segue. Il primo capitolo si concentra sull'analisi sociologica delle trasformazioni del welfare state iniziate negli anni Ottanta. Nella prima sezione viene ricostruita la storia del welfare state per contestualizzare le novità della nuova idea di welfare rispetto alle precedenti. Dalle prime politiche sociali attuate in Prussia alla fine dell'Ottocento, alla massima espansione raggiunta dopo la Seconda guerra mondiale, fino al presente welfare state, molti sono stati i cambiamenti sia nelle politiche concretamente attuate che negli obiettivi perseguiti. La seconda sezione analizza il rapporto tra diritti e doveri nelle politiche di welfare. Infatti, una delle giustificazioni per le riforme è la necessità di riequilibrare un rapporto ritenuto sbilanciato. Nel welfare state beveridgiano, l'accento sarebbe stato posto troppo sul lato dei diritti e troppo poco su quello dei doveri. La concezione marshalliana dei diritti sociali come componente fondamentale per garantire la piena cittadinanza e l'accesso alla vita sociale e le conseguenze della nuova enfasi sui doveri sono discusse. La terza sezione entra poi nel merito delle nuove politiche di welfare. Si analizza il ruolo centrale attribuito alla responsabilità individuale e come il suo significato del concetto di responsabilità sia cambiato rispetto a quello del welfare state beveridgiano. Infine, le implicazioni di questo cambiamento per le politiche attuali sono esplorate. Il secondo capitolo si concentra invece sull'analisi filosofica della teoria egalitaria e sul ruolo della responsabilità individuale in essa. La prima sezione esamina i principi di giustizia individuati da Rawls su cui basare la giustificazioen dello Stato sociale. Si dimostra inoltre che nella sua teoria non c’è centralità per il concetto di responsabilità individuale. Nel secondo capitolo, viene analizzata la teoria dell’egalitarismo della sorte. Vengono evidenziate le differenze con l'egalitarismo rawlsiano e viene spiegato il ruolo centrale che il concetto di responsabilità individuale assume in questa. La terza sezione analizza un altra idea di egualitarismo, quella relazionale, per evidenziare i limiti dell'egualitarismo della sorte. Infine, la quarta sezione considera il dibattito intorno allo scetticismo dell’esistenza del libero arbitrio. Infatti, questo sostiene l'impossibilità di determinare appieno in che misura le decisioni e le azioni abbiano origine dalla volontà delle persone. Spesso infatti queste sono influenzate da fattori esterni, approccio che mette in discussione la possibilità stessa di concepire responsabilità individuale, come invece sostenuto dagli egalitaristi della sorte. Infine, il terzo capitolo sposta l’analisi sul piano empirico. Per comprendere il reale impatto che il nuovo concetto di welfare ha già avuto sui regimi di welfare state, con particolare attenzione al concetto di responsabilità individuale, vengono analizzati i discorsi che i primi ministri di Italia, Regno Unito, Danimarca e Svezia hanno tenuto nelle prime fasi della pandemia di Covid-19. Si sostiene infatti che la situazione di emergenza abbia costretto i singoli paesi a orientare le proprie risposte basandosi su concezioni già presenti e legate al regime di welfare di appartenenza. Emerge quindi una distinzione tra paesi che hanno enfatizzato un concetto attivo di responsabilità e altri che ne hanno enfatizzato uno passivo. La prima sezione presenta il quadro teorico, la seconda sezione spiega la selezione dei casi di studio e il contesto pandemico di ciascun eaese, mentre la terza sezione illustra il metodo di analisi e la selezione dei dati. Infine, la quarta sezione presenta l'analisi dei dati e le conclusioni.
A responsible welfare state: individual responsibility as the new rationale of the welfare state
CACCIANI, GIOVANNI
2025
Abstract
The thesis focuses on the concept of individual responsibility, arguing that it is one of the core elements in the process of welfare state reform that started in the 1980s. In a changing scenario characterised by fiscal constraints, the establishment of a globalised economic-political dimension and the emergence of new social needs and risks, it was felt that the role of the welfare state should also change. In fact, the Beveridgean welfare state was designed to meet the needs of the post-war society by securing social rights for all citizens, also favored by the rapid economic growth. However, the major changes affecting the labour market, such as increasing flexibility and precarisation, clashed with a right-oriented welfare state designed to compensate for market failures. On the contrary, the debate on the welfare state and the actual policy implementation pointed to a new role for the welfare state, i.e. to support these changes in the labour market by fostering the reintegration of able-bodied welfare recipients into the labour market (as in the case of workfare measures) or by focusing on developing their flexibility and multi-skilling (as in the case of social investment). The attention is therefore on the activation of recipients in the name of respect for the duties and reciprocity that each individual has towards the State and the community. Within this framework, the concept of individual responsibility is emphasised. Indeed, it is the responsibility of the individual, supported by the state through welfare measures, to find his role in society and especially in the labour market, and if the individual does not commit himself to this, he can be held responsible for the failure. The consequence is a limitation of state help for those who are considered responsible for their situation. The thesis claims that this emphasis on individual responsibility does not only concern the concrete dimension of the welfare measures, but also a change in the rationale behind the welfare state. This has been supported by the merging of the sociological literature on the welfare state with the philosophical literature on social justice and egalitarianism. Indeed, a common path towards the centrality of the concept of individual responsibility has emerged on both a political and a theoretical level, and the idea has gained a general consensus from both the right and the left: on the one hand from the conservative parties and the neo-liberal thinkers, and on the other from the New Labour Party with the Third Way and the luck-egalitarian theorists. An equal and just society could only be achieved by taking due account of individual responsibility; on the contrary, it would be unfair not to take account of the different degrees of responsibility people have for their circumstances. The thesis is structured as follows. The first chapter focuses on the sociological analysis of the new welfare state transformations that began in the 1980s. In the first section, the history of the welfare state is reconstructed in order to contextualise the novelties of the new idea of welfare compared to the previous ones. From the first social policies implemented in Prussia at the end of the nineteenth century, to their maximum expansion after the Second World War, to the current welfare states, there have been many changes both in the policies implemented and in the objectives set. The second section analyses the relationship between rights and duties in welfare policies. Indeed, one of the justifications for the welfare reforms is the need to rebalance an unbalanced relationship. In the Beveridgeian welfare state, the emphasis would have been too much on the side of rights and too little on the side of duties. The Marshallian conception of social rights as a fundamental component in guaranteeing full citizenship and access to social life and the consequences of the new emphasis on duties are discussed. The third section then turns to the merits of the new welfare policies. It analyses the central role given to individual responsibility and how its meaning has changed in relation to the Beveridgean welfare state. Finally, the implications of this shift for actual policy are explored. The second chapter focuses instead on the philosophical analysis of egalitarian theory and the role of individual responsibility in it. The first section examines Rawls's principles of justice to argue that they could provide the basis for justifying the welfare state. It is also shown that there is no account of individual responsibility in his theory. In the second chapter, the luck egalitarian theory is analysed. The differences with Rawlsian egalitarianism are highlighted and the central role of the concept of individual responsibility is explained. The third section analyses another account of egalitarianism, namely relational egalitarianism, in order to highlight the limitations of luck egalitarianism. Finally, the fourth section considers the free will scepticism debate. Indeed, the fact that it is impossible to fully determine the extent to which decisions and actions originate in people's will or are instead strongly influenced by external factors calls into question the luck egalitarian claim of individual responsibility. Finally, the third chapter focuses on empirical analysis. In order to understand the real impact that the new welfare concept has already had on the welfare state regimes, with a particular focus on the concept of individual responsibility, the public speeches of the Prime Ministers of Italy, the United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden are analysed. It is argued that the emergency situation of the pandemic forced the individual countries to base their responses on the previous concepts, which at the time were related to the type of welfare regime to which one belonged. It is therefore possible to distinguish between countries that emphasised an active concept of responsibility and others that emphasised a passive one. The first section presents the theoretical framework, the second section explains the selection of case studies and the pandemic context of each country, and the third section explains the method of analysis and data selection. Finally, the fourth section presents the analysis of the data and the conclusions.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/210863
URN:NBN:IT:UNIMC-210863