The Role of Religion: Gender Identity Formation in Late Modern and Contemporary Iran

This dissertation examines the interplay between religion, gender identity, and women's agency within the socio-political sphere of Iran, spanning from the late Qajar period to contemporary history. It focuses on the pervasive influence of both secular and religious patriarchal systems, on Iranian women's lives throughout history, highlighting how these structures have consistently undermined women's rights. It seeks to explore whether the entrenchment of these dual patriarchal systems allows for any meaningful advancement of women's rights and which relationship exists between women's empowerment in political spheres and the establishment of their rights. Grounded in extensive fieldwork, this research incorporates in-depth interviews with women activists, scholars, journalists, and members of various Iranian women's organizations, both domestically and in the diaspora. It draws from a rich array of primary sources and contemporary narratives to shed light on the enduring legacy of women's activism amidst systemic oppression. A significant aspect of this dissertation is its commitment to amplifying the voices of Iranian women themselves, as the patriarchal hegemony has historically constrained and most importantly manipulated their narratives both within and outside of Iran. The research emphasizes that despite substantial legal and cultural setbacks, particularly following the 1979 Revolution, Iranian women have consistently engaged in resistance and advocacy for their rights, exemplified by movements such as the Zhina movement, which emerged recently in response to the state's enforcement of compulsory hijab laws. Additionally, this thesis delves into the dynamics of women's identity formation in relation to religious institutions, examining how these entities have shaped women's perceptions of their rights and societal roles. It posits that the cognitive framing imposed by patriarchal religious systems often leads women to internalize norms that contradict their pursuit of agency and equality. By critically analyzing the contributions of notable scholars and activists, this dissertation underscores the importance of contextualizing Iranian women's struggles within both local and global feminist discourses. Ultimately, this work aims to provide a nuanced understanding of the historical and contemporary intersections of religion, gender, and politics in Iran, establishing a foundation for future research into the complexities of women's movements and the ongoing quest for gender equality in the region. The findings assert that as long as various forms of male-dominated structures persist—whether religious, secular, or capitalist—there remains a substantial risk of regression in women's rights. Keywords: Iranian women; gender identity; religious patriarchy; secular patriarchy; women's agency; feminist movements; Islamic Revolution; Zhina movement; Middle Eastern studies; global gender politics.