Livestock biodiversity represents a critical resource for ensuring food security, cultural heritage, and resilience in the face of global change. Yet, this biodiversity is under increasing threat from genetic erosion, unsustainable management, and the accelerating impacts of climate change. Preserving the adaptive potential of small ruminants is particularly urgent, as these species play key ecological and socio-economic roles in many regions. This thesis addresses these challenges by combining ecological, demographic, and genomic perspectives to explore the diversity, adaptation, and vulnerability of goats and sheep, with a special focus on the Italian context. The first part (Chapter 2.1) examines the domestication and evolutionary history of goats. Reviewing archaeological, historical, and genomic evidence, it traces the species’ trajectory from early domestication events to modern breeding practices. This overview provides the conceptual background needed to understand how past processes have shaped present-day genetic diversity, and why a long-term perspective is essential when studying current patterns of adaptation and resilience. The second part (Chapters 3.1–3.2) provides a comprehensive assessment of the geographical distribution, environmental context, and potential vulnerabilities of Italian sheep and goat breeds, addressing priorities highlighted by the FAO. For the first time, detailed maps were created for all Italian breeds based on the geolocalisation of over 3,700 individual farms, allowing a breed-specific characterisation of breeding ranges and their exposure to climatic and environmental risks. Chapter 3.1 integrates geolocated breed data with seven decades of summer climatic information, revealing a clear increase in average temperatures, temperature–humidity index, and heat waves over the last decades. Data revealed that the greatest changes occurred in northern Italy, while southern breeds, though raised in harsher environments, experienced relatively more stable conditions, highlighting their value as case studies for resilience. Chapter 3.2 extends this approach by evaluating exposure to natural hazards together with future climate projections and landscape characterisation. Results reveal that Italian small ruminants are especially exposed to seismic risk, mainly in southern regions, and to increasingly warmer and drier conditions, threatening in particular Alpine breeds adapted to cold environments. The identification of breed-specific landscape patterns also underscores that the resilience of local livestock depends not only on climate, but also on broader ecological and socio-environmental contexts. This integrated approach enables the identification of disparities in exposure to different environmental factors at the breed or regional level, as well as the investigation of the interactions between small ruminants and the landscapes they inhabit, providing essential information to guide conservation and adaptive management strategies in accordance with FAO priorities. Another essential aspect of safeguarding local breeds is the accurate recognition and characterisation of their originality and adaptive potential by integrating historical, phenotypic, and genomic information. Chapters 4.1 and 4.2 focus on the Sicilian local goat breed, the Comune di Sicilia (Mascaruna), a population long known to farmers and documented in historical records but not formally recognised as a distinct breed. Chapter 4.1 combines morphological and genomic analyses to characterise the population, demonstrating its distinctiveness while also detecting candidate genomic regions linked to specific phenotypic traits. Chapter 4.2 situates the Comune di Sicilia within a broader Mediterranean and African context, identifying putative Greek ancestry. Selection signature analyses highlighted genes associated with production traits, body size, fertility, coat colour, fat deposition, and horn and ear development, reflecting the breed’s unique history and adaptive profile. Together, these studies provided the scientific evidence required for this breed’s formal recognition, which was approved in 2025, and will contribute to developing strategies to preserve its genetic variability. Chapters 4.3 and 4.4 extend the investigation to the national scale, providing a comprehensive genomic assessment of Italian sheep and goat biodiversity. These studies integrate population structure, genetic diversity, and genomic background analyses with temporal comparisons using historical samples, offering a novel approach to detect recent evolutionary shifts and understand local breed dynamics over the past two decades. When interpreted alongside demographic data and the broader historical, management, and socio-cultural context of Italian livestock, the results reveal how past practices and recent changes have shaped breed variability and resilience. Specifically, Chapter 4.3 focuses on Italian sheep, highlighting critical situations in terms of population viability, with many breeds showing declining demographic trends and reduced genetic variability. While many breeds remain clearly distinguishable, strong introgression from foreign breeds (e.g., Île-de-France in Merinizzata Italiana) and increased admixture in others (e.g., Gentile di Puglia and Nera di Arbus) were detected. Temporal comparisons over twenty years identified genomic regions with the highest allele shifts, including loci related to production, reproduction, immunity, and adaptation. Integrating climatic data enabled correlations between these shifts and environmental changes, identifying SNPs associated with genes previously linked to sheep adaptation, as well as relevant pathways including immunity, oxidative stress response, alarmones, body growth, water balance, circadian rhythm, energy metabolism, and cardiovascular function. Chapter 4.4 examines Italian goats, revealing a clear distinction between northern populations, which were generally well differentiated, and central-southern populations, which were often more admixed and shared a common ancestry. Temporal comparisons showed that most breeds maintained their genomic backgrounds, with notable exceptions such as Bianca Monticellana and Capestrina, which exhibited increased homogeneity and inbreeding. Landscape genomic approaches identified genomic regions putatively associated with environmental adaptation. Three genes were detected across multiple methods—KPNA1, PARP9, and LRP8—involved in immunity, fat metabolism, neuronal and behavioural development, and oxidative stress response. Additional signals included genes linked to adaptive morphological traits, immunity, and the development of urinary and digestive systems. For the first time, genomic offset analyses were applied to Italian goats to predict vulnerable areas and populations under projected climate scenarios (2080–2100), highlighting northern Alpine fringes, the eastern Po Valley, and the Murgia-Gargano area, home to the Garganica breed. Taken together, the studies presented here provide an integrated understanding of the biodiversity of goats and sheep, from their domestication to contemporary diversity and potential future vulnerabilities. By combining historical, ecological, and genomic approaches, the work illustrates how past trajectories, current environmental conditions, and human management interact to shape the genome, drive adaptation, and influence the vulnerability of small ruminant populations, with Italy providing a particularly informative context due to its ecological heterogeneity and rich cultural traditions. These findings underscore that all these aspects should be taken into consideration to effectively guide conservation priorities and adaptive management strategies, thereby supporting the long-term survival and adaptive potential of livestock genetic resources. The results also reveal opportunities for further research, which could take advantage of emerging tools and complementary techniques—such as epigenomic profiling, sequencing approaches, or experimental validation. For example, populations identified as especially interesting from an adaptive perspective provide targets for fine-scale genomic investigations, which could refine our understanding of their ability to persist in their environment and inform tailored conservation strategies. Finally, beyond advancing scientific knowledge, the findings provide practical tools to support the conservation, management, and sustainable use of local breeds. Close collaboration with Asso.Na.Pa. ensured that the results can directly inform the design and implementation of effective safeguarding strategies, including prioritisation of breeds for conservation, planning of breeding programs to maintain genetic variability, and monitoring of population trends over time. By bridging research and applied conservation, these outcomes offer breeders and associations concrete guidance to make evidence-based decisions that enhance the long-term resilience of Italy’s small ruminant genetic resources.
La biodiversità zootecnica rappresenta una risorsa fondamentale per la sicurezza alimentare, la conservazione del patrimonio culturale e la resilienza del settore agroalimentare di fronte ai cambiamenti in atto su scala globale. Tuttavia, questa biodiversità è in crescente pericolo a causa di fenomeni di erosione genetica, pratiche di gestione insostenibili e cambiamenti climatici. I piccoli ruminanti assumono, in molte aree del mondo, un ruolo chiave sia dal punto di vista ecologico che socioeconomico, rendendo la loro salvaguardia un tema di estremo interesse. Pertanto, la presente tesi si prefigge di affrontare tali sfide integrando studi di carattere ecologico, demografico e genomico al fine di studiare la diversità, l’adattamento e la potenziale vulnerabilità delle specie ovina e caprina, con particolare attenzione al contesto italiano. La prima parte della tesi (Capitolo 2.1) tratta della domesticazione e della storia evolutiva delle capre, ripercorrendo il percorso di questa specie dagli esordi della sua domesticazione fino alle più moderne pratiche di allevamento, mediante l’analisi di studi archeologici, storici e genomici presenti in letteratura. Questa panoramica fornisce una base concettuale fondamentale per comprendere come gli eventi intercorsi durante l’intera storia evolutiva della specie abbiano contribuito a plasmarne l’attuale diversità genetica, influenzando lo sviluppo delle popolazioni, la selezione antropica e l’adattamento alla moltitudine di ambienti in cui questi animali vengono allevati. Seguono i Capitoli 3.1 e 3.2, in cui si fornisce una descrizione dettagliata della distribuzione geografica, del contesto ambientale e delle potenziali vulnerabilità che caratterizzano le razze ovine e caprine italiane, in linea con quanto annoverato tra le priorità strategiche della FAO per la preservazione delle risorse genetiche animali. In particolare, questa rappresenta la prima realizzazione di mappe dettagliate della geolocalizzazione su suolo nazionale di oltre 3.700 allevamenti, il che consente una caratterizzazione precisa degli areali di allevamento di tutte le razze ovicaprine italiane e della loro esposizione a diversi fattori climatici e ambientali. Il Capitolo 3.1, in particolare, integra queste informazioni con dati climatici relativi ai mesi estivi degli ultimi settant’anni, evidenziando un chiaro aumento delle temperature medie, dell’indice temperatura–umidità e delle ondate di calore negli ultimi decenni. Inoltre, viene riscontrato un più marcato cambiamento soprattutto nelle aree settentrionali del nostro Paese, mentre le razze meridionali, sebbene allevate in ambienti complessivamente più ardui, hanno sperimentato condizioni relativamente più stabili, diventando pertanto ottimi modelli per lo studio della resilienza ambientale. Il Capitolo 3.2 amplia questo approccio valutando l’esposizione delle razze ovine e caprine italiane a vari rischi naturali, integrando anche proiezioni climatiche future e la caratterizzazione del territorio dove le diverse popolazioni insistono. I risultati mostrano una notevole esposizione al rischio sismico, in particolare tra le popolazioni meridionali, e all’avvicendarsi di condizioni climatiche sempre più calde e secche, di particolare rilevanza per le razze alpine, storicamente adattate a climi più freddi. La caratterizzazione paesaggistica delle diverse popolazioni sottolinea come l’adattamento delle razze locali al proprio ambiente di allevamento debba tenere in considerazione non solo i fattori climatici, ma anche il più ampio contesto ecologico e socio-ambientale. Combinando tutti questi aspetti è quindi possibile, da un lato, identificare a quali differenti fattori sono diversamente esposte le regioni geografiche e le razze ovicaprine italiane, e dall’altro comprendere meglio come gli animali interagiscano con l’ambiente in cui vivono—e viceversa—, informazioni fondamentali per lo sviluppo di strategie efficaci di conservazione e gestione delle popolazioni zootecniche. Un altro aspetto cruciale per salvaguardare le razze locali è la caratterizzazione e il riconoscimento della loro originalità e del loro potenziale adattativo sulla base dell’integrazione di informazioni storiche, fenotipiche e genomiche. In questo contesto vengono riportati due studi (Capitoli 4.1 e 4.2) relativi alla capra Comune di Sicilia (o Mascaruna), una popolazione da tempo nota agli allevatori e documentata in fonti storiche, ma mai ufficialmente riconosciuta come razza. Il Capitolo 4.1 combina analisi morfologiche e genomiche atte a caratterizzare questa popolazione, evidenziandone l’unicità e identificando regioni genomiche associate a suoi tratti fenotipici peculiari. Il Capitolo 4.2 colloca la Comune di Sicilia in un contesto geografico più ampio, suggerendone una possibile ascendenza greca. Tale studio, inoltre, analizza firme di selezione specifiche—legate a caratteristiche produttive, dimensioni corporee, fertilità, colore del mantello, deposito di grasso e sviluppo di corna e orecchie—, risultato del lungo processo di evoluzione, selezione e adattamento di questa razza. Nel loro insieme, questi due studi hanno fornito le evidenze scientifiche necessarie al riconoscimento della capra Comune di Sicilia, ottenuto nel 2025, e contribuiranno a guidare la costruzione di strategie per preservarne la variabilità genetica. I Capitoli 4.3 e 4.4 estendono l’analisi a livello nazionale, offrendo una valutazione genomica completa della biodiversità delle pecore e delle capre italiane. Questi studi combinano analisi di struttura di popolazione, diversità genetica e background genomico con comparazioni su scala temporale, proponendo un approccio innovativo per la rilevazione di cambiamenti evolutivi recenti delle razze locali negli ultimi due decenni. Considerati insieme ai dati demografici e al più ampio contesto storico, manageriale e socioculturale, i risultati mostrano come pratiche passate e cambiamenti recenti abbiano plasmato la variabilità e la resilienza dei piccoli ruminanti. In particolare, il Capitolo 4.3 analizza le pecore italiane, evidenziando che molte razze mostrano trend demografici in diminuzione e ridotta variabilità genetica, suscitando seri dubbi sulla loro possibilità di sopravvivenza. Seppur nella maggior parte dei casi sia possibile identificare chiaramente le diverse popolazioni, si rileva, in alcune, una marcata introgressione da parte di razze estere (ad esempio Île-de-France nella Merinizzata Italiana) e/o altre razze italiane (ad esempio Gentile di Puglia e Nera di Arbus). I confronti con campioni risalenti a circa vent’anni fa hanno inoltre consentito di rilevare quali regioni genomiche siano state sottoposte a una più marcata variazione, molte delle quali risultano essere associate a tratti produttivi e riproduttivi, alla risposta immunitaria e/o all’adattamento ambientale. Un ulteriore approfondimento su quest’ultimo aspetto, possibile grazie all’integrazione di dati relativi al cambiamento di numerose variabili climatiche nel corso del tempo, ha portato all’identificazione di SNP associati a geni noti per il loro ruolo nell’adattamento e a pathway potenzialmente rilevanti, come immunità, risposta allo stress ossidativo, crescita corporea, equilibrio idrico, ritmo circadiano, metabolismo energetico e funzionalità cardiovascolare. Il Capitolo 4.4 si concentra sulle capre italiane, i cui dati genomici rivelano una chiara distinzione tra popolazioni settentrionali, generalmente ben differenziate, e centro-meridionali, spesso più admixed e caratterizzate da un pool ancestrale condiviso. I confronti temporali mostrano che la maggior parte delle razze ha mantenuto il proprio background genomico nel corso degli ultimi vent’anni, con eccezioni quali Bianca Monticellana e Capestrina, che presentano maggiore omogeneità e inbreeding rispetto al passato. Grazie a un approccio di landscape genomics, inoltre, si sono individuate regioni genomiche potenzialmente associate all’adattamento ambientale. In particolare, incrociando i risultati di più metodi, sono emersi tre geni—KPNA1, PARP9 e LRP8— coinvolti nel funzionamento del sistema immunitario, nel metabolismo dei grassi, nello sviluppo neuronale e comportamentale e nella risposta allo stress ossidativo. Ulteriori segnali includono geni legati a tratti morfologici adattativi, immunità e sviluppo degli apparati escretore e digerente. In questo studio, per la prima volta, è stato stimato un valore di genomic offset per le capre italiane, con l’obiettivo di prevedere quali aree geografiche e popolazioni possano risultare più vulnerabili ai futuri scenari climatici, attesi per il 2080–2100. In particolare, tale analisi ha evidenziato che il confine settentrionale della regione alpina, la porzione orientale della Pianura padana e l’area della Murgia e del Gargano, dove viene allevata la razza Garganica, rappresentano le aree a maggior rischio. Nel complesso, gli studi presentati in questa tesi forniscono quindi una comprensione multidisciplinare della biodiversità delle specie caprina ed ovina, a partire dalla loro domesticazione fino alla diversità attuale e alle possibili vulnerabilità future. Combinando approcci storici, ecologici e genomici, la presente tesi mostra come traiettorie passate, condizioni ambientali attuali e gestione antropica interagiscano per modellare il genoma, guidare l’adattamento e influenzare la vulnerabilità delle popolazioni di piccoli ruminanti in un contesto, quello italiano, particolarmente informativo, data la sua eterogeneità ecologica e le ricche tradizioni culturali che lo caratterizzano. Questi risultati evidenziano inoltre come tutti questi aspetti vadano considerati al fine di orientare le priorità conservazionistiche e le strategie di gestione delle popolazioni, sostenendo la sopravvivenza a lungo termine e il potenziale adattativo delle risorse genetiche animali. Inoltre, questi studi forniscono un punto di partenza per ulteriori indagini, che potrebbero fare uso di tecniche complementari ed innovative, come epigenomica, sequenziamento completo e validazione sperimentale. Ad esempio, le popolazioni identificate come di particolare interesse dal punto di vista adattativo possono rappresentare target per studi genomici mirati, utili per approfondire la comprensione dei meccanismi che hanno consentito loro di persistere nel loro ambiente e per sviluppare strategie di conservazione ad hoc. Infine, i dati qui presentati offrono strumenti pratici per supportare la conservazione, la gestione e l’uso sostenibile delle razze locali. La stretta collaborazione con Asso.Na.Pa. ha infatti permesso di tradurre le evidenze scientifiche in strategie concrete, tra cui la priorizzazione delle razze per la conservazione, la pianificazione di programmi di allevamento per mantenere la variabilità genetica entro e tra popolazioni e il monitoraggio dei trend demografici. Colmando il divario tra ricerca e applicazione, questi risultati forniscono agli allevatori e alle associazioni indicazioni concrete per prendere decisioni basate su dati obiettivi che possano potenziare la resilienza a lungo termine delle risorse genetiche dei piccoli ruminanti italiani.
BIODIVERSITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ADAPTATION IN SMALL RUMINANTS: MAPPING TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL GENOMIC CHANGES IN ITALIAN SHEEP AND GOATS
BIONDA, ARIANNA
2025
Abstract
Livestock biodiversity represents a critical resource for ensuring food security, cultural heritage, and resilience in the face of global change. Yet, this biodiversity is under increasing threat from genetic erosion, unsustainable management, and the accelerating impacts of climate change. Preserving the adaptive potential of small ruminants is particularly urgent, as these species play key ecological and socio-economic roles in many regions. This thesis addresses these challenges by combining ecological, demographic, and genomic perspectives to explore the diversity, adaptation, and vulnerability of goats and sheep, with a special focus on the Italian context. The first part (Chapter 2.1) examines the domestication and evolutionary history of goats. Reviewing archaeological, historical, and genomic evidence, it traces the species’ trajectory from early domestication events to modern breeding practices. This overview provides the conceptual background needed to understand how past processes have shaped present-day genetic diversity, and why a long-term perspective is essential when studying current patterns of adaptation and resilience. The second part (Chapters 3.1–3.2) provides a comprehensive assessment of the geographical distribution, environmental context, and potential vulnerabilities of Italian sheep and goat breeds, addressing priorities highlighted by the FAO. For the first time, detailed maps were created for all Italian breeds based on the geolocalisation of over 3,700 individual farms, allowing a breed-specific characterisation of breeding ranges and their exposure to climatic and environmental risks. Chapter 3.1 integrates geolocated breed data with seven decades of summer climatic information, revealing a clear increase in average temperatures, temperature–humidity index, and heat waves over the last decades. Data revealed that the greatest changes occurred in northern Italy, while southern breeds, though raised in harsher environments, experienced relatively more stable conditions, highlighting their value as case studies for resilience. Chapter 3.2 extends this approach by evaluating exposure to natural hazards together with future climate projections and landscape characterisation. Results reveal that Italian small ruminants are especially exposed to seismic risk, mainly in southern regions, and to increasingly warmer and drier conditions, threatening in particular Alpine breeds adapted to cold environments. The identification of breed-specific landscape patterns also underscores that the resilience of local livestock depends not only on climate, but also on broader ecological and socio-environmental contexts. This integrated approach enables the identification of disparities in exposure to different environmental factors at the breed or regional level, as well as the investigation of the interactions between small ruminants and the landscapes they inhabit, providing essential information to guide conservation and adaptive management strategies in accordance with FAO priorities. Another essential aspect of safeguarding local breeds is the accurate recognition and characterisation of their originality and adaptive potential by integrating historical, phenotypic, and genomic information. Chapters 4.1 and 4.2 focus on the Sicilian local goat breed, the Comune di Sicilia (Mascaruna), a population long known to farmers and documented in historical records but not formally recognised as a distinct breed. Chapter 4.1 combines morphological and genomic analyses to characterise the population, demonstrating its distinctiveness while also detecting candidate genomic regions linked to specific phenotypic traits. Chapter 4.2 situates the Comune di Sicilia within a broader Mediterranean and African context, identifying putative Greek ancestry. Selection signature analyses highlighted genes associated with production traits, body size, fertility, coat colour, fat deposition, and horn and ear development, reflecting the breed’s unique history and adaptive profile. Together, these studies provided the scientific evidence required for this breed’s formal recognition, which was approved in 2025, and will contribute to developing strategies to preserve its genetic variability. Chapters 4.3 and 4.4 extend the investigation to the national scale, providing a comprehensive genomic assessment of Italian sheep and goat biodiversity. These studies integrate population structure, genetic diversity, and genomic background analyses with temporal comparisons using historical samples, offering a novel approach to detect recent evolutionary shifts and understand local breed dynamics over the past two decades. When interpreted alongside demographic data and the broader historical, management, and socio-cultural context of Italian livestock, the results reveal how past practices and recent changes have shaped breed variability and resilience. Specifically, Chapter 4.3 focuses on Italian sheep, highlighting critical situations in terms of population viability, with many breeds showing declining demographic trends and reduced genetic variability. While many breeds remain clearly distinguishable, strong introgression from foreign breeds (e.g., Île-de-France in Merinizzata Italiana) and increased admixture in others (e.g., Gentile di Puglia and Nera di Arbus) were detected. Temporal comparisons over twenty years identified genomic regions with the highest allele shifts, including loci related to production, reproduction, immunity, and adaptation. Integrating climatic data enabled correlations between these shifts and environmental changes, identifying SNPs associated with genes previously linked to sheep adaptation, as well as relevant pathways including immunity, oxidative stress response, alarmones, body growth, water balance, circadian rhythm, energy metabolism, and cardiovascular function. Chapter 4.4 examines Italian goats, revealing a clear distinction between northern populations, which were generally well differentiated, and central-southern populations, which were often more admixed and shared a common ancestry. Temporal comparisons showed that most breeds maintained their genomic backgrounds, with notable exceptions such as Bianca Monticellana and Capestrina, which exhibited increased homogeneity and inbreeding. Landscape genomic approaches identified genomic regions putatively associated with environmental adaptation. Three genes were detected across multiple methods—KPNA1, PARP9, and LRP8—involved in immunity, fat metabolism, neuronal and behavioural development, and oxidative stress response. Additional signals included genes linked to adaptive morphological traits, immunity, and the development of urinary and digestive systems. For the first time, genomic offset analyses were applied to Italian goats to predict vulnerable areas and populations under projected climate scenarios (2080–2100), highlighting northern Alpine fringes, the eastern Po Valley, and the Murgia-Gargano area, home to the Garganica breed. Taken together, the studies presented here provide an integrated understanding of the biodiversity of goats and sheep, from their domestication to contemporary diversity and potential future vulnerabilities. By combining historical, ecological, and genomic approaches, the work illustrates how past trajectories, current environmental conditions, and human management interact to shape the genome, drive adaptation, and influence the vulnerability of small ruminant populations, with Italy providing a particularly informative context due to its ecological heterogeneity and rich cultural traditions. These findings underscore that all these aspects should be taken into consideration to effectively guide conservation priorities and adaptive management strategies, thereby supporting the long-term survival and adaptive potential of livestock genetic resources. The results also reveal opportunities for further research, which could take advantage of emerging tools and complementary techniques—such as epigenomic profiling, sequencing approaches, or experimental validation. For example, populations identified as especially interesting from an adaptive perspective provide targets for fine-scale genomic investigations, which could refine our understanding of their ability to persist in their environment and inform tailored conservation strategies. Finally, beyond advancing scientific knowledge, the findings provide practical tools to support the conservation, management, and sustainable use of local breeds. Close collaboration with Asso.Na.Pa. ensured that the results can directly inform the design and implementation of effective safeguarding strategies, including prioritisation of breeds for conservation, planning of breeding programs to maintain genetic variability, and monitoring of population trends over time. By bridging research and applied conservation, these outcomes offer breeders and associations concrete guidance to make evidence-based decisions that enhance the long-term resilience of Italy’s small ruminant genetic resources.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/352990
URN:NBN:IT:UNIMI-352990