Tamoxifen (TAM) and raloxifene (RAL) are Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs) widely prescribed for Estrogen Receptor α (ERα)-dependent conditions, such as ERα-positive breast cancer and osteoporosis. Recently, these drugs have attracted attention for their unexpected efficacy against a broad spectrum of microbial pathogens. While their antimicrobial activity has been consistently observed, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. The wide spectrum of SERM anti-infective activity hints to a general defensive mechanism that protect against microbial invasions, pointing to host innate immunity as direct targets of SERMs. Macrophages are innate immune cells that play a central role in the fight against pathogen invasion. Interestingly, some data report the efficacy of TAM and RAL against intracellular infections by pathogens that survive inside macrophages. Despite their clinical relevance, the effects of SERMs on immune cells have been scarcely investigated. This project aimed to investigate the molecular mechanisms of TAM and RAL activity in macrophages and to assess their therapeutic potential in infectious diseases. I demonstrated that RAL acts by a dual mechanism, which entails ERα antagonism and off-target/ERα-independent mediators, suggesting a common mechanism of action with TAM. These two SERMs regulate immune gene expression across various macrophage subsets, eliciting both conserved and subset-specific responses. Mechanistically, TAM and RAL modulate lysosomal functions and cholesterol metabolism, particularly through inhibition of the microsomal Antiestrogen Binding Site (AEBS), thereby activating downstream pathways such as the PI3K/NRF2 pathway, cathepsin B, and the NLRP3 inflammasome. These effects collectively enhance the macrophage primary inflammatory response to Toll-like Receptor (TLR) agonists, increasing production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL1β and TNFα, while simultaneously suppressing IL6, a cytokine associated with chronic and often harmful inflammation. Importantly, these immunomodulatory effects were consistent in both male and female macrophages. Overall, this work unravels a novel molecular mechanism and immune functions for TAM and RAL, supporting their repurposing as host-directed therapies and providing a foundation for the development of new therapeutic strategies against infectious diseases, particularly by intracellular or multidrug-resistant pathogens.
Tamoxifene (TAM) e raloxifene (RAL) sono modulatori selettivi del recettore degli estrogeni (SERMs), ampiamente prescritti per il trattamento di patologie dipendenti dal recettore degli estrogeni α (ERα), come il tumore al seno ERα-positivo e l’osteoporosi. Recentemente, questi farmaci hanno suscitato interesse per la loro inaspettata efficacia anti-infettiva contro un ampio spettro di patogeni. I meccanismi molecolari alla base di tale effetto rimangono ancora poco chiari. L’ampio spettro d’azione dei SERMs suggerisce il coinvolgimento di un sistema protettivo più generale e proprio dell’ospite, quale l’immunità innata. In questo contesto, i macrofagi sono cellule immunitarie innate che svolgono un ruolo chiave nella lotta contro le infezioni. È interessante sottolineare che alcuni studi dimostrano l’efficacia di TAM e RAL contro infezioni intracellulari date da patogeni in grado di sopravvivere all’interno dei macrofagi. Tuttavia, nonostante la loro rilevanza clinica, gli effetti dei SERMs sulle cellule immunitarie sono stati finora scarsamente indagati. Questo progetto ha avuto l’obiettivo di studiare i meccanismi molecolari alla base dell’attività di TAM e RAL nei macrofagi e di valutarne il potenziale terapeutico nelle malattie infettive. I miei risultati dimostrano che RAL agisce attraverso un duplice meccanismo, che comprende da un lato l’antagonismo del recettore ERα e dall’altro l’attivazione di mediatori off-target, ovvero indipendenti da ERα, suggerendo un meccanismo d’azione simile a quello di TAM. Entrambi i farmaci regolano l’espressione di geni legati all’attivazione immunitaria in diverse popolazioni di macrofagi, inducendo risposte sia conservate che specifiche. A livello molecolare, TAM e RAL interferiscono con le funzioni lisosomiali e il metabolismo del colesterolo, in particolare attraverso l’inibizione del complesso AEBS, attivando così vie di segnalazione a valle come il pathway PI3K/NRF2, la catepsina B e l’inflammasoma NLRP3. Questi effetti contribuiscono a potenziare la risposta infiammatoria primaria dei macrofagi in seguito alla stimolazione dei recettori Toll-like (TLR), aumentando la produzione delle citochine pro-infiammatorie IL1β e TNFα, e al contempo inibendo l’espressione di IL6, una citochina associata a infiammazioni croniche e dannose. Tali effetti immunomodulatori sono stati osservati sia nei macrofagi maschili che femminili. Nel complesso, questo lavoro rivela un meccanismo molecolare e un’attività immunomodulante di TAM e RAL nei macrofagi finora non ancora descritti, che sostengono il riposizionamento dell’utilizzo di questi farmaci come modulatori dell’immunità innata e aprono la strada allo sviluppo di nuove strategie terapeutiche per il trattamento di malattie infettive, in particolare mediate da patogeni intracellulari o resistenti alle terapie classiche.
IMMUNOMODULATORY ACTIVITY OF TAMOXIFEN AND RALOXIFENE IN MACROPHAGES: IMPLICATIONS FOR HOST-DIRECTED THERAPIES IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES
SFOGLIARINI, CHIARA
2026
Abstract
Tamoxifen (TAM) and raloxifene (RAL) are Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs) widely prescribed for Estrogen Receptor α (ERα)-dependent conditions, such as ERα-positive breast cancer and osteoporosis. Recently, these drugs have attracted attention for their unexpected efficacy against a broad spectrum of microbial pathogens. While their antimicrobial activity has been consistently observed, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. The wide spectrum of SERM anti-infective activity hints to a general defensive mechanism that protect against microbial invasions, pointing to host innate immunity as direct targets of SERMs. Macrophages are innate immune cells that play a central role in the fight against pathogen invasion. Interestingly, some data report the efficacy of TAM and RAL against intracellular infections by pathogens that survive inside macrophages. Despite their clinical relevance, the effects of SERMs on immune cells have been scarcely investigated. This project aimed to investigate the molecular mechanisms of TAM and RAL activity in macrophages and to assess their therapeutic potential in infectious diseases. I demonstrated that RAL acts by a dual mechanism, which entails ERα antagonism and off-target/ERα-independent mediators, suggesting a common mechanism of action with TAM. These two SERMs regulate immune gene expression across various macrophage subsets, eliciting both conserved and subset-specific responses. Mechanistically, TAM and RAL modulate lysosomal functions and cholesterol metabolism, particularly through inhibition of the microsomal Antiestrogen Binding Site (AEBS), thereby activating downstream pathways such as the PI3K/NRF2 pathway, cathepsin B, and the NLRP3 inflammasome. These effects collectively enhance the macrophage primary inflammatory response to Toll-like Receptor (TLR) agonists, increasing production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL1β and TNFα, while simultaneously suppressing IL6, a cytokine associated with chronic and often harmful inflammation. Importantly, these immunomodulatory effects were consistent in both male and female macrophages. Overall, this work unravels a novel molecular mechanism and immune functions for TAM and RAL, supporting their repurposing as host-directed therapies and providing a foundation for the development of new therapeutic strategies against infectious diseases, particularly by intracellular or multidrug-resistant pathogens.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/355968
URN:NBN:IT:UNIMI-355968