Mitochondria form a dynamic network whose spatial architecture is governed by the balance between fusion and fission, known as mitochondrial dynamics. These two opposing processes are essential for mitochondrial turnover: fusion, mediated by MFN2 and OPA1 regulators, promotes mitochondrial biogenesis, whereas fission, driven by DRP1, commits damaged mitochondria to their selective elimination. Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is a neuromuscular disorder in which a deficiency in the SMN (Survival Motor Neuron) protein leads to motor neuron (MN) degeneration. Since the SMN protein is involved in mitochondrial homeostasis, several SMA models have shown mitochondrial dysfunction, including an imbalance in mitochondrial dynamics. This study first explored the state of mitochondrial dynamics in soma and neurites of early-stage MNs differentiated from SMA patient-derived iPSCs and primary MNs from the SMNΔ7 mouse model. In both models, the mitochondrial mass was significantly reduced, specifically in the neuritic compartment. Notably, the analysis of fusion and fission regulators exhibited a moderate imbalance toward fission, detected exclusively in neurites through the in silico mitochondrial network analysis (MiNA). Interestingly, the treatment with an MFN2 activator, promoting fusion within the network, was able to enhance mitochondrial content and increase SMN protein levels in SMA human MNs. Although MNs seem to be the most sensitive cells to suffer from the low level of SMN, nowadays SMA is considered a multisystemic disease. Therefore, we also investigated mitochondrial dynamics at the peripheral level using human fibroblasts derived from SMA patients. As in SMA MNs, the analysis of fusion and fission regulators revealed a shift toward fission; in fibroblasts, however, this imbalance was associated with functional rather than content-related mitochondrial alterations. Surprisingly, also in SMA human fibroblasts, the fusion-promoting compound increased mitochondrial content and SMN protein levels, together with improvements in mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP synthase levels in a dose-dependent manner. Although the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics is a highly sensitive process, these findings highlight how increasing mitochondrial fusion in SMA can positively modulate the organelle turnover, enhancing mitochondrial content and function, and preserving SMN expression. Collectively, the beneficial effects of this treatment across two distinct SMA models support MFN2 boosting as a promising therapeutic strategy, particularly in combination with already approved SMA treatments.
I mitocondri formano una rete dinamica la cui architettura spaziale è regolata dall’equilibrio tra fusione e fissione, meccanismi noti come dinamiche mitocondriali. Questi due processi opposti sono essenziali per il turnover mitocondriale: la fusione, mediata dai regolatori MFN2 e OPA1, favorisce la biogenesi mitocondriale, mentre la fissione, guidata da DRP1, indirizza i mitocondri danneggiati verso la loro eliminazione selettiva. L’Atrofia Muscolare Spinale (SMA) è una malattia neuromuscolare in cui la carenza della proteina SMN (Survival Motor Neuron) provoca la degenerazione dei motoneuroni (MN). Poiché la proteina SMN è coinvolta nell’omeostasi mitocondriale, diversi modelli di studio della SMA hanno evidenziato disfunzioni mitocondriali, inclusi squilibri nelle dinamiche mitocondriali. In questo studio abbiamo inizialmente analizzato lo stato delle dinamiche mitocondriali nel soma e nei neuriti di motoneuroni in fase precoce, differenziati da iPSC derivate da pazienti SMA, e in motoneuroni primari del modello murino SMNΔ7. In entrambi i modelli, la massa mitocondriale risultava significativamente ridotta, in particolare nel compartimento neuritico. L’analisi dei regolatori di fusione e fissione ha rivelato un moderato sbilanciamento verso la fissione, rilevato esclusivamente nei neuriti tramite l’analisi in silico della rete mitocondriale (MiNA). Interessante notare che il trattamento con un attivatore di MFN2, in grado di promuovere la fusione nella rete, ha aumentato il contenuto mitocondriale e i livelli della proteina SMN nei motoneuroni umani SMA. Sebbene i motoneuroni siano le cellule più sensibili alla riduzione della proteina SMN, oggi la SMA è considerata una patologia multisistemica. Per questo motivo abbiamo indagato le dinamiche mitocondriali anche a livello periferico, utilizzando fibroblasti umani derivati da pazienti SMA. Come nei motoneuroni SMA, anche nei fibroblasti l’analisi dei regolatori di fusione e fissione ha mostrato uno shift verso la fissione; tuttavia, in questo caso lo squilibrio era associato a alterazioni funzionali più che a una riduzione del contenuto mitocondriale. Sorprendentemente, anche nei fibroblasti SMA il farmaco pro-fusione ha aumentato il contenuto mitocondriale e i livelli di SMN, insieme a un miglioramento del potenziale di membrana mitocondriale e dei livelli di ATP sintasi in maniera dose-dipendente. Sebbene la regolazione delle dinamiche mitocondriali sia un processo estremamente complesso, questi risultati evidenziano come l’aumento della fusione mitocondriale nella SMA possa modulare positivamente il turnover della rete mitocondriale, incrementando il contenuto e la funzione mitocondriale, e preservando l’espressione di SMN. Nel complesso, gli effetti positivi osservati in due distinti modelli di SMA supportano l'idea di utilizzare il potenziamento di MFN2 come strategia terapeutica promettente, soprattutto in combinazione con i trattamenti SMA già approvati.
Regulation of mitochondrial dynamics imbalance as a potential therapy for Spinal Muscular Atrophy
ZUMMO, Francesco Paolo
2026
Abstract
Mitochondria form a dynamic network whose spatial architecture is governed by the balance between fusion and fission, known as mitochondrial dynamics. These two opposing processes are essential for mitochondrial turnover: fusion, mediated by MFN2 and OPA1 regulators, promotes mitochondrial biogenesis, whereas fission, driven by DRP1, commits damaged mitochondria to their selective elimination. Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is a neuromuscular disorder in which a deficiency in the SMN (Survival Motor Neuron) protein leads to motor neuron (MN) degeneration. Since the SMN protein is involved in mitochondrial homeostasis, several SMA models have shown mitochondrial dysfunction, including an imbalance in mitochondrial dynamics. This study first explored the state of mitochondrial dynamics in soma and neurites of early-stage MNs differentiated from SMA patient-derived iPSCs and primary MNs from the SMNΔ7 mouse model. In both models, the mitochondrial mass was significantly reduced, specifically in the neuritic compartment. Notably, the analysis of fusion and fission regulators exhibited a moderate imbalance toward fission, detected exclusively in neurites through the in silico mitochondrial network analysis (MiNA). Interestingly, the treatment with an MFN2 activator, promoting fusion within the network, was able to enhance mitochondrial content and increase SMN protein levels in SMA human MNs. Although MNs seem to be the most sensitive cells to suffer from the low level of SMN, nowadays SMA is considered a multisystemic disease. Therefore, we also investigated mitochondrial dynamics at the peripheral level using human fibroblasts derived from SMA patients. As in SMA MNs, the analysis of fusion and fission regulators revealed a shift toward fission; in fibroblasts, however, this imbalance was associated with functional rather than content-related mitochondrial alterations. Surprisingly, also in SMA human fibroblasts, the fusion-promoting compound increased mitochondrial content and SMN protein levels, together with improvements in mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP synthase levels in a dose-dependent manner. Although the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics is a highly sensitive process, these findings highlight how increasing mitochondrial fusion in SMA can positively modulate the organelle turnover, enhancing mitochondrial content and function, and preserving SMN expression. Collectively, the beneficial effects of this treatment across two distinct SMA models support MFN2 boosting as a promising therapeutic strategy, particularly in combination with already approved SMA treatments.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/357314
URN:NBN:IT:UNIPA-357314