Motivations, experiences, and perceptions of being alone in childhood and adolescence: insights from a mixed-methods approach

This dissertation explores three central dimensions that emerged as critical for conceptualizing being alone in childhood and early adolescence: the motivations underlying time spent alone, the subjective experiences of loneliness and aloneliness, and the perceptions of peers regarding solitary behaviors. Combining variable-, person-, and interview-based methodologies, the four studies that make up this dissertation contribute to our understanding of the multifaceted nature of being alone in childhood and adolescence. Also, for the first time the construct of aloneliness was studied in the Italian context, opening up research to a greater focus on the positive aspects of being alone. Study 1 examines the distinct pathways linking subtypes of social withdrawal to internalizing difficulties, mediated by loneliness and aloneliness in late childhood and early adolescence (N = 459; M = 11.24 years, SD = 1.66). Results show that shyness is indirectly associated with social anxiety and depression through loneliness, whereas unsociability is indirectly associated with depressive symptoms through aloneliness. These associations strengthen with age, highlighting developmental changes in the socioemotional costs of being alone. Study 2 applies a person-oriented approach, to differentiate groups of children and early adolescents (N = 561; M = 11.32 years, SD = 1.63) characterized by their motivations for social withdrawal, personal experiences with time spent alone, internalizing difficulties, and personality traits. Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) provided evidence of three distinct groups: (1) the shy group; (2) the unsociable group; and (3) the sociable group. Study 3 explores definitions and experiences of loneliness interviewing children and early adolescents in Italy (N = 139; M = 10.76 years, SD = 1.71). The coding process revealed that loneliness is a multidimensional construct, encompassing cognitive, emotional, and interpersonal dimensions, with younger children describing it as physical separation and older youths framing it as emotional or cognitive disconnection from others. Overall, the present study offers a richer understanding of the meanings and experiences of loneliness in youth. Study 4 extends the investigation to preschoolers (N = 117; M = 54.88 months, SD =10.78), examining how they perceive peers with different solitary or social preferences. Using vignettes, the study shows that even at this age, children differentiate between lonely and alonely peers, preferring sociable peers but expressing greater sympathy toward lonely ones. By focusing on underexplored age groups (i.e., preschoolers and early adolescents) this work advances both theory and practice, offering insights for family, educational, and clinical contexts aimed at supporting adaptive solitary experiences and promoting socio-emotional well-being.