Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is revolutionizing regenerative medicine by enabling the creation of custom-made implants tailored to individual patients. This cutting-edge technology allows for precise fabrication of complex structures that mimic natural tissues, enhancing biocompatibility and functionality. By leveraging patient-specific data, additive manufacturing provides unparalleled opportunities for personalized treatment, improving outcomes in areas such as bone regeneration, organ scaffolding, and tissue repair. As in the bone regeneration fields like Cranioplasty a highly delicate and ancient surgical procedure designed to reconstruct or replace bone tissue that has been damaged and removed through cranioectomy, typically due to trauma or congenital malformations. Ensuring the success of this operation involves overcoming significant challenges, including achieving seamless integration of the implant with existing bone (osteointegration) and preventing the host body's rejection of the prosthesis. Additionally, the implant must possess sufficient mechanical strength to withstand various stresses, particularly internal cranial pressure. Various materials are employed in cranioplasty, each offering unique benefits and presenting certain limitations. Titanium is a widely used metal due to its excellent resistance to corrosion and superior biocompatibility with human tissue. Ceramics, like hydroxyapatite (HAp), are notable for their ability to promote bone growth and integration, making them ideal for bone replacement. Several biopolymers such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL), have been regarded as promising materials for in craniomaxillo-facial surgery applications. Indeed, PEEK presents high strength and biocompatibility, closely mimicking the mechanical properties of natural bone. PMMA is frequently used because it provides adequate mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and lower cost compared to PEEK. However, there are some technology limitations like: the in-situ polymerization of PMMA during surgery can lead to inflammation or infection, and the exothermic nature of the polymerization process can cause necrosis of the surrounding tissues. Additionally, the mechanical properties of biopolymers like PMMA, PLA and PCL are sometimes inferior to those of natural bone, posing further challenges for its use in regenerative medicine, the implant also could be subjected to shrinkage phenomenon during the traditional production by casting techniques. These complications have led to the need to find alternative materials and methodologies. Among the production techniques, the additive manufacturing (AM) allows the creation of objects with complex geometries, ad of custom made and personalised devices and implants, with obvious high potentialities for biomedical applications and, mainly, for regenerative medicine. In this framework, the aim of the present Ph.D. thesis was to identify the optimal polymeric materials and AM processing parameters for the development of biomedical devices such as cranial and craniomaxillofacial fixation implants. 4 specifically through Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM). The study began with the selection of four primary biopolymers for this type of application: PEEK, PMMA, PCL, and PLA. Subsequent optimization of the main parameters was conducted to achieve samples with higher aesthetic quality. Thermal characterization tests were then performed using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to observe the influence of the 3D printing process on the thermal properties of the tested materials. In regenerative medicine, a scaffold is a three-dimensional structure designed to support cell attachment, growth, and tissue formation. It mimics the extracellular matrix, providing a temporary framework for cells to regenerate damaged tissues or organs. Scaffolds are often made from biocompatible and biodegradable materials like polymers, ceramics, or composites. It has to must primarily fulfill two tasks: provide mechanical support and promote the regeneration of the original tissue. To achieve this, an experimental campaign was carried out to verify the influence of nozzle size, which showed an increase in mechanical performance with a decrease in nozzle diameter, and the deposition trajectory. For tensile testing, Line and Gyroids were identified as ideal candidates, while for compression testing, no optimal choice was evident. Regarding the second main requirement, cytotoxicity tests were conducted on two of the selected materials, PMMA and coated PMMA with Hydroxyapatite (HAp), identified as primary candidates for low-cost device fabrication. The MTT assay graphs indicated that both materials were non-toxic to the cells used. Furthermore, the type of porosity significantly influenced the tissue's cellular regrowth capabilities around the scaffold, with Line and Gyroids again emerging as ideal candidates from a biological standpoint. Drop casting coatings tests showed the presence of hydroxyapatite on the coated PMMA sample. However, the results indicated a non-uniform coating characterized by height differences in the final thickness. Following initial characterization tests, the production of biomedical devices for craniomaxillofacial applications commenced. This began with the modeling and production of fixation systems using the most common geometries in this field. Reproducibility tests of the samples were conducted, revealing that the limitations of the FDM 3D printer lay in circular profiles, though these did not significantly impair the final quality of the piece. Mechanical tests performed on samples printed under the same conditions according to standards, and directly on the fixation systems using an experimental setup, indicated that FDM samples had lower mechanical properties compared to values reported in the literature. These results, however, do not exclude the potential of this technology in this field but highlight the need for further optimization of process parameters
La manifattura additiva, nota anche come stampa 3D, sta rivoluzionando la medicina rigenerativa, consentendo la creazione di impianti personalizzati su misura per ogni paziente. Questa tecnologia all'avanguardia permette la fabbricazione precisa di strutture complesse che imitano i tessuti naturali, migliorando la biocompatibilità e la funzionalità. Grazie all'uso di dati specifici del paziente, la 5 manifattura additiva offre opportunità senza precedenti per trattamenti personalizzati, con applicazioni che spaziano dalla rigenerazione ossea alla creazione di scaffold per organi e alla riparazione dei tessuti. Nel campo della rigenerazione ossea, un esempio significativo è la cranioplastica, un'antica e delicata procedura chirurgica finalizzata alla ricostruzione o sostituzione del tessuto osseo danneggiato o rimosso tramite craniectomia, solitamente a seguito di traumi o malformazioni congenite. Il successo di questa operazione dipende da molteplici fattori, tra cui l'integrazione dell'impianto con l'osso esistente (osteointegrazione) e la prevenzione del rigetto da parte del corpo ospite. Inoltre, l'impianto deve possedere un'adeguata resistenza meccanica per sopportare le sollecitazioni, in particolare la pressione intracranica. Diversi materiali sono utilizzati nella cranioplastica, ognuno con vantaggi e limitazioni specifiche. Il titanio è ampiamente impiegato per la sua eccellente resistenza alla corrosione e l’elevata biocompatibilità. Le ceramiche, come l’idrossiapatite (HAp), favoriscono la crescita e l’integrazione ossea, rendendole ideali per la sostituzione del tessuto osseo. Vari biopolimeri, tra cui il polietereterchetone (PEEK), il polimetilmetacrilato (PMMA), l’acido polilattico (PLA) e il policaprolattone (PCL), sono considerati promettenti per applicazioni in chirurgia cranio-maxillo-facciale. Il PEEK si distingue per l’elevata resistenza e biocompatibilità, riproducendo fedelmente le proprietà meccaniche dell’osso naturale. Il PMMA è ampiamente utilizzato grazie alla sua adeguata resistenza meccanica, biocompatibilità e costo inferiore rispetto al PEEK. Tuttavia, presenta alcune limitazioni tecnologiche: la polimerizzazione in situ durante l’intervento può causare infiammazioni o infezioni, e il processo esotermico può portare a necrosi dei tessuti circostanti. Inoltre, le proprietà meccaniche di biopolimeri come PMMA, PLA e PCL sono spesso inferiori a quelle dell'osso naturale, rendendone complessa l'applicazione nella medicina rigenerativa. Un’ulteriore criticità della produzione tradizionale tramite colata è il fenomeno di ritiro dell’impianto. Queste problematiche hanno portato alla ricerca di materiali e metodologie alternative. Tra le tecniche di produzione, la manifattura additiva (AM) consente la creazione di dispositivi personalizzati con geometrie complesse, offrendo enormi potenzialità per le applicazioni biomediche e, in particolare, per la medicina rigenerativa. In questo contesto, l’obiettivo della presente tesi di dottorato è stato identificare i materiali polimerici ottimali e i parametri di stampa 3D per lo sviluppo di dispositivi biomedicali, come impianti di fissazione cranica e cranio-maxillo-facciale, attraverso la tecnica Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM). Lo studio è iniziato con la selezione di quattro biopolimeri principali per queste applicazioni: PEEK, PMMA, PCL e PLA. Successivamente, è stata effettuata un’ottimizzazione dei parametri di stampa per ottenere campioni con qualità estetica superiore. Le proprietà termiche dei materiali sono state analizzate mediante calorimetria a scansione differenziale (DSC) per valutare l'influenza del processo di stampa 3D. Nella medicina rigenerativa, uno scaffold è una struttura tridimensionale progettata per 6 supportare l’adesione cellulare, la crescita e la formazione di tessuti, mimando la matrice extracellulare e fornendo un supporto temporaneo per la rigenerazione dei tessuti danneggiati. Uno scaffold deve assolvere due funzioni fondamentali: garantire supporto meccanico e favorire la rigenerazione del tessuto originale. A tal fine, è stata condotta una campagna sperimentale per analizzare l’influenza del diametro dell’ugello di stampa, che ha evidenziato un miglioramento delle prestazioni meccaniche con la riduzione del diametro, e delle traiettorie di deposizione. Per i test di trazione, le configurazioni Line e Gyroid si sono rivelate le più promettenti, mentre per i test di compressione non è emersa una scelta ottimale. Per quanto riguarda il secondo requisito chiave, sono stati eseguiti test di citotossicità su due dei materiali selezionati, PMMA e PMMA rivestito con idrossiapatite (HAp), individuati come principali candidati per la realizzazione di dispositivi a basso costo. I test MTT hanno confermato la non tossicità di entrambi i materiali. Inoltre, la porosità dello scaffold ha avuto un impatto significativo sulla ricrescita cellulare, con Line e Gyroid che si sono dimostrati i migliori anche da un punto di vista biologico. I test di rivestimento tramite drop casting hanno evidenziato la presenza di idrossiapatite sul PMMA rivestito, sebbene il rivestimento risultasse non uniforme, con variazioni di spessore. Dopo la caratterizzazione iniziale, si è passati alla produzione di dispositivi biomedicali per applicazioni cranio-maxillo-facciali, a partire dalla modellazione e produzione di sistemi di fissazione basati sulle geometrie più comuni in questo settore. I test di riproducibilità hanno evidenziato che la principale limitazione della stampante FDM riguarda i profili circolari, sebbene ciò non abbia compromesso significativamente la qualità finale del pezzo. Le prove meccaniche eseguite su campioni stampati con le stesse condizioni, sia secondo gli standard sia direttamente sui sistemi di fissazione, hanno mostrato proprietà meccaniche inferiori rispetto ai valori riportati in letteratura. Tuttavia, questi risultati non escludono il potenziale della tecnologia FDM in questo ambito, ma evidenziano la necessità di un’ulteriore ottimizzazione dei parametri di processo
Modellazione a deposizione fusa di biopolimeri per impianti biomedici personalizzati
PAPA, VALERIO
2026
Abstract
Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is revolutionizing regenerative medicine by enabling the creation of custom-made implants tailored to individual patients. This cutting-edge technology allows for precise fabrication of complex structures that mimic natural tissues, enhancing biocompatibility and functionality. By leveraging patient-specific data, additive manufacturing provides unparalleled opportunities for personalized treatment, improving outcomes in areas such as bone regeneration, organ scaffolding, and tissue repair. As in the bone regeneration fields like Cranioplasty a highly delicate and ancient surgical procedure designed to reconstruct or replace bone tissue that has been damaged and removed through cranioectomy, typically due to trauma or congenital malformations. Ensuring the success of this operation involves overcoming significant challenges, including achieving seamless integration of the implant with existing bone (osteointegration) and preventing the host body's rejection of the prosthesis. Additionally, the implant must possess sufficient mechanical strength to withstand various stresses, particularly internal cranial pressure. Various materials are employed in cranioplasty, each offering unique benefits and presenting certain limitations. Titanium is a widely used metal due to its excellent resistance to corrosion and superior biocompatibility with human tissue. Ceramics, like hydroxyapatite (HAp), are notable for their ability to promote bone growth and integration, making them ideal for bone replacement. Several biopolymers such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL), have been regarded as promising materials for in craniomaxillo-facial surgery applications. Indeed, PEEK presents high strength and biocompatibility, closely mimicking the mechanical properties of natural bone. PMMA is frequently used because it provides adequate mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and lower cost compared to PEEK. However, there are some technology limitations like: the in-situ polymerization of PMMA during surgery can lead to inflammation or infection, and the exothermic nature of the polymerization process can cause necrosis of the surrounding tissues. Additionally, the mechanical properties of biopolymers like PMMA, PLA and PCL are sometimes inferior to those of natural bone, posing further challenges for its use in regenerative medicine, the implant also could be subjected to shrinkage phenomenon during the traditional production by casting techniques. These complications have led to the need to find alternative materials and methodologies. Among the production techniques, the additive manufacturing (AM) allows the creation of objects with complex geometries, ad of custom made and personalised devices and implants, with obvious high potentialities for biomedical applications and, mainly, for regenerative medicine. In this framework, the aim of the present Ph.D. thesis was to identify the optimal polymeric materials and AM processing parameters for the development of biomedical devices such as cranial and craniomaxillofacial fixation implants. 4 specifically through Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM). The study began with the selection of four primary biopolymers for this type of application: PEEK, PMMA, PCL, and PLA. Subsequent optimization of the main parameters was conducted to achieve samples with higher aesthetic quality. Thermal characterization tests were then performed using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to observe the influence of the 3D printing process on the thermal properties of the tested materials. In regenerative medicine, a scaffold is a three-dimensional structure designed to support cell attachment, growth, and tissue formation. It mimics the extracellular matrix, providing a temporary framework for cells to regenerate damaged tissues or organs. Scaffolds are often made from biocompatible and biodegradable materials like polymers, ceramics, or composites. It has to must primarily fulfill two tasks: provide mechanical support and promote the regeneration of the original tissue. To achieve this, an experimental campaign was carried out to verify the influence of nozzle size, which showed an increase in mechanical performance with a decrease in nozzle diameter, and the deposition trajectory. For tensile testing, Line and Gyroids were identified as ideal candidates, while for compression testing, no optimal choice was evident. Regarding the second main requirement, cytotoxicity tests were conducted on two of the selected materials, PMMA and coated PMMA with Hydroxyapatite (HAp), identified as primary candidates for low-cost device fabrication. The MTT assay graphs indicated that both materials were non-toxic to the cells used. Furthermore, the type of porosity significantly influenced the tissue's cellular regrowth capabilities around the scaffold, with Line and Gyroids again emerging as ideal candidates from a biological standpoint. Drop casting coatings tests showed the presence of hydroxyapatite on the coated PMMA sample. However, the results indicated a non-uniform coating characterized by height differences in the final thickness. Following initial characterization tests, the production of biomedical devices for craniomaxillofacial applications commenced. This began with the modeling and production of fixation systems using the most common geometries in this field. Reproducibility tests of the samples were conducted, revealing that the limitations of the FDM 3D printer lay in circular profiles, though these did not significantly impair the final quality of the piece. Mechanical tests performed on samples printed under the same conditions according to standards, and directly on the fixation systems using an experimental setup, indicated that FDM samples had lower mechanical properties compared to values reported in the literature. These results, however, do not exclude the potential of this technology in this field but highlight the need for further optimization of process parameters| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/358707
URN:NBN:IT:UNICUSANO-358707