This PhD thesis concerns the study of archaeological bronze artifacts belonging to two Italic civilizations, the Nuragic (Sardinia) and the Etruscans (Central Italy), in the period from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age. Both civilizations were important for cultural and commercial centers, due to the emergence of long-distance trade routes, which facilitated the circulation of assets, technological knowledge, and cultural models. Sardinia was rich in copper, lead, and silver deposits, thus becoming a strategic region for trade, due to its central position in the Mediterranean basin, while Etruria, which evolved from the Villanovan culture, exploited local metal resources such as those of the Island of Elba and the “Metalliferous Hills”. Both civilizations, despite having abundant local resources, adopted economic strategies that involved importing, reusing, and remelting metals, highlighting an economy based on the circulation and exchange of ore materials. The existence of established contacts between the two populations during those centuries has been confirmed by various archaeological finds, which bear witness to exchanges of both finished objects and raw materials in both areas. The general objective of this research is to increase knowledge about the metallurgical skills possessed by the Nuragic and Etruscan peoples and to provide further evidence of the relationship between the two communities. This was achieved through a comparative study of artifacts belonging to both civilizations. The artifacts were selected and divided into three macro-categories, i.e., ornaments, statuettes, and tools/weapons, to include different contexts of metal use, such as social, sacred, and utilitarian. Within each category, different artifacts were selected, but they all shared a common functionality. The artifacts come from Sardinian museums and from Etruscan archaeological sites (Vulci, Bolsena, and Pyrgi). This thesis adopts a multi-analytical approach, combining non-destructive, micro-destructive, and destructive techniques to characterize the chemical composition and structure of the alloy, the production processes, as well as the state of preservation and, in some cases, the provenance of the raw materials. The main methods were X-ray fluorescence with Monte Carlo simulation (XRF-MCS) for the quantitative determination of elements and the structural characterization of alloys; scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) and electron microprobe (EMPA) for the analysis of microstructures, chemistry and inclusions; micro-Raman spectroscopy and electrochemical techniques (VIMP, Mott-Schottky analysis) for the study of corrosion products and the state of conservation; X-ray microscopy (XRM) and neutron tomography (NT) were used for three-dimensional reconstruction of internal structures and understanding of manufacturing processes; finally, isotopic analysis of lead (LIA) and trace elements for the geological traceability of metals and the reconstruction of commercial and cultural contacts in the Mediterranean. In this thesis, seven case studies are reported, starting from the Nuragic finds, then the Etruscan ones, and finally the artifacts that testify to the contact between the two worlds. The results obtained showed that both civilizations were fully capable of selecting the type of alloy according to the final use of the artifact. The artifacts were mainly made of bronze with a low tin content (less than 11%), to which Pb was added, when necessary, to improve the working characteristics and lower the melting point. Both people were technically capable of producing structurally complex artifacts using the lost wax technique. Furthermore, the study of the production processes of some artifacts highlighted the choices by metallurgists in production, including repairs and modifications. The comparison among the Nuragic and Etruscan artifacts, the greatest differences emerge from the axes. The Sardinian axes, in fact, almost always feature bronze alloys with a low lead content (< 5%), while the Etruscan axes analyzed show higher percentages (between 10 and 16%). The study of axes and ingots, as well as that of a rare statuette found in Lake Bolsena (VT), has provided new data and evidence on the exchange of raw materials in the Mediterranean, revealing a deep connection not only of a commercial nature, but also a social one, which fostered mutual technological and cultural contamination.
La presente tesi di dottorato riguarda lo studio di manufatti archeologici in bronzo appartenenti a due civiltà italiche, i Nuragici (Sardegna) e gli Etruschi (Centro Italia), nel periodo che va dalla tarda Età del Bronzo alla tarda Età del Ferro. Entrambe le civiltà furono poli culturali e commerciali di rilievo, grazie alla nascita delle rotte commerciali a lunga distanza, che favorirono la circolazione di beni, competenze tecnologiche e modelli culturali. La Sardegna, ricca di giacimenti di rame, zinco, piombo e argento, divenne uno snodo strategico per i traffici commerciali, favoriti in particolar modo dalla sua posizione centrale nel bacino del Mediterraneo, mentre l’Etruria, evolutasi dalla cultura villanoviana, sfruttò le risorse metallifere locali dell’Isola d’Elba e delle Colline Metallifere. Pur disponendo di abbondanti risorse locali, entrambe le civiltà adottarono strategie economiche che prevedevano l'importazione, il riuso e la rifusione di metalli, evidenziando un'economia di circolazione e scambio. L'esistenza di contatti consolidati tra le due popolazioni in quei secoli è stata confermata da diversi ritrovamenti archeologici, che testimoniano scambi sia di oggetti finiti che di materie prime in entrambe le aree. L'obiettivo generale della presente tesi di dottorato è quello di aumentare le conoscenze sulle competenze metallurgiche dei nuragici e degli etruschi e fornire ulteriori testimonianze di rapporti tra le due comunità, mediante uno studio comparativo di manufatti appartenenti ad entrambe le civiltà. I reperti sono stati selezionati e suddivisi in tre macrocategorie - ornamenti, statuette e utensili/armi - in modo da includere diversi contesti di applicazione dei metalli, come la sfera sociale, quella sacra e quella utilitaristica. All’interno di ogni categoria sono stati selezionati manufatti differenti, ma accomunati dalla funzionalità. I manufatti provengono da musei, per quanto riguarda quelli di origine sarda, e da contesti archeologici (Vulci, Bolsena e Pyrgi), per quelli etruschi. Dal punto di vista metodologico, la tesi adotta un approccio multi-analitico, combinando tecniche non distruttive, micro-distruttive e distruttive per caratterizzare la composizione della lega, i processi di produzione, oltre allo stato di conservazione e, in alcuni casi, la provenienza delle materie prime. Le principali metodologie impiegate sono la fluorescenza a raggi X con simulazione Monte Carlo (XRF-MCS) per la determinazione quantitativa degli elementi e la caratterizzazione strutturale delle leghe; la microscopia elettronica a scansione (SEM-EDS) e la microsonda elettronica (EMPA) per l’analisi delle microstrutture e delle inclusioni; la spettroscopia micro-Raman e le tecniche elettrochimiche (VIMP, analisi Mott-Schottky) per lo studio dei prodotti di corrosione e dello stato di conservazione; la microscopia a raggi X (XRM) e la tomografia neutronica (NT) per la ricostruzione tridimensionale delle strutture interne e la comprensione dei processi di lavorazione; infine, le analisi isotopiche del piombo (LIA) e degli elementi in traccia per la tracciabilità geologica dei metalli e la ricostruzione dei contatti commerciali e culturali nel Mediterraneo. La tesi è articolata in sette casi di studio, vengono presentati per primi i reperti di produzione nuragica, seguiti da quelli etruschi, e infine i manufatti che testimoniano i contatti tra i due mondi. I risultati ottenuti hanno evidenziato come entrambe le civiltà fossero pienamente in grado di selezionare la tipologia di lega in funzione dell’utilizzo finale del manufatto. I reperti sono stati realizzati prevalentemente in bronzo a basso tenore di stagno (inferiore all’11%), al quale veniva aggiunto piombo, quando necessario, per migliorare le caratteristiche di lavorazione e abbassare il punto di fusione. Sia i Nuragici che gli Etruschi erano tecnicamente in grado di realizzare manufatti strutturalmente complessi mediante la tecnica della cera persa. Inoltre, lo studio sui processi di produzione di alcuni dei reperti ha evidenziato le scelte adottate dai metallurgisti per la loro realizzazione, anche per quanto riguardava riparazioni e modifiche. Tra le tipologie di reperti confrontati le differenze maggiori emergono dalle asce. Quelle sarde, infatti, presentano quasi sempre leghe in bronzo con un basso contenuto di piombo (< al 5%), mentre le asce etrusche analizzate mostrano percentuali più elevate (tra il 10 e il 16%). Lo studio di asce e panelle e quello di una rara statuetta ritrovata nel contesto del Lago di Bolsena (VT), ha fornito nuovi dati ed evidenze sugli scambi di materie prime nel contesto del Mediterraneo, rivelando una connessione profonda non solo di natura commerciale, ma anche sociale, che favorì una contaminazione tecnologica e culturale reciproca.
Bronzes between Sardinia and Etruria - Multi-analytical characterization and trade networks from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age
PORCARO, MARTA
2026
Abstract
This PhD thesis concerns the study of archaeological bronze artifacts belonging to two Italic civilizations, the Nuragic (Sardinia) and the Etruscans (Central Italy), in the period from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age. Both civilizations were important for cultural and commercial centers, due to the emergence of long-distance trade routes, which facilitated the circulation of assets, technological knowledge, and cultural models. Sardinia was rich in copper, lead, and silver deposits, thus becoming a strategic region for trade, due to its central position in the Mediterranean basin, while Etruria, which evolved from the Villanovan culture, exploited local metal resources such as those of the Island of Elba and the “Metalliferous Hills”. Both civilizations, despite having abundant local resources, adopted economic strategies that involved importing, reusing, and remelting metals, highlighting an economy based on the circulation and exchange of ore materials. The existence of established contacts between the two populations during those centuries has been confirmed by various archaeological finds, which bear witness to exchanges of both finished objects and raw materials in both areas. The general objective of this research is to increase knowledge about the metallurgical skills possessed by the Nuragic and Etruscan peoples and to provide further evidence of the relationship between the two communities. This was achieved through a comparative study of artifacts belonging to both civilizations. The artifacts were selected and divided into three macro-categories, i.e., ornaments, statuettes, and tools/weapons, to include different contexts of metal use, such as social, sacred, and utilitarian. Within each category, different artifacts were selected, but they all shared a common functionality. The artifacts come from Sardinian museums and from Etruscan archaeological sites (Vulci, Bolsena, and Pyrgi). This thesis adopts a multi-analytical approach, combining non-destructive, micro-destructive, and destructive techniques to characterize the chemical composition and structure of the alloy, the production processes, as well as the state of preservation and, in some cases, the provenance of the raw materials. The main methods were X-ray fluorescence with Monte Carlo simulation (XRF-MCS) for the quantitative determination of elements and the structural characterization of alloys; scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) and electron microprobe (EMPA) for the analysis of microstructures, chemistry and inclusions; micro-Raman spectroscopy and electrochemical techniques (VIMP, Mott-Schottky analysis) for the study of corrosion products and the state of conservation; X-ray microscopy (XRM) and neutron tomography (NT) were used for three-dimensional reconstruction of internal structures and understanding of manufacturing processes; finally, isotopic analysis of lead (LIA) and trace elements for the geological traceability of metals and the reconstruction of commercial and cultural contacts in the Mediterranean. In this thesis, seven case studies are reported, starting from the Nuragic finds, then the Etruscan ones, and finally the artifacts that testify to the contact between the two worlds. The results obtained showed that both civilizations were fully capable of selecting the type of alloy according to the final use of the artifact. The artifacts were mainly made of bronze with a low tin content (less than 11%), to which Pb was added, when necessary, to improve the working characteristics and lower the melting point. Both people were technically capable of producing structurally complex artifacts using the lost wax technique. Furthermore, the study of the production processes of some artifacts highlighted the choices by metallurgists in production, including repairs and modifications. The comparison among the Nuragic and Etruscan artifacts, the greatest differences emerge from the axes. The Sardinian axes, in fact, almost always feature bronze alloys with a low lead content (< 5%), while the Etruscan axes analyzed show higher percentages (between 10 and 16%). The study of axes and ingots, as well as that of a rare statuette found in Lake Bolsena (VT), has provided new data and evidence on the exchange of raw materials in the Mediterranean, revealing a deep connection not only of a commercial nature, but also a social one, which fostered mutual technological and cultural contamination.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Tesi_dottorato_Porcaro.pdf
embargo fino al 19/03/2027
Licenza:
Creative Commons
Dimensione
29.24 MB
Formato
Adobe PDF
|
29.24 MB | Adobe PDF |
I documenti in UNITESI sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.
https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/361830
URN:NBN:IT:UNIROMA1-361830