The decarbonization of the transport sector stands as one of the most critical challenges in achieving global climate goals. However, the ecological transition of both public and private mobility is constrained by deep technological, economic, and policy uncertainties. Despite major advances in clean propulsion technology and energy systems, the transport sector remains one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions worldwide, responsible for nearly a quarter of global CO₂ output. While renewable energy deployment and electrification are progressing, their diffusion across transport systems is uneven and strongly dependent on infrastructure readiness, regulatory frameworks, and consumer acceptance. In public transport sector, among alternative powertrains, battery electric buses (BEBs) currently represent the most promising option for reducing emissions. Their economic and environmental potential is growing, yet their actual convenience remains uncertain and strongly context dependent. BEBs face high initial costs and infrastructure-related uncertainties that still limit large-scale deployment. Future improvements in costs and performance are expected, but both their pace and magnitude remain unpredictable. Operators often postpone fleet replacement while waiting for clearer incentives or more mature technologies, yet excessive delay risks slowing down the transition itself. At the same time, private mobility remains the largest contributor to transport-related emissions and a major obstacle to achieving full decarbonization. The uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) is accelerating, but its pace and distribution across countries are highly uneven. Adoption is strongly shaped by fiscal policies and energy generation mix. Even as upfront costs decrease, users remain strongly responsive to taxation and incentives, however the magnitude of this response is still highly uncertain. This thesis investigates how uncertainty shapes the ecological transition of public and private transport and how governments and decision makers can design strategies that remain effective under changing conditions. It examines investment choices and fiscal measures through complementary analytical approaches that combine economics, risk analysis and decision theory. The central argument is that deterministic models still dominate transport appraisal and planning, despite their inability to capture the depth and persistence of uncertainty in real-world transitions. The research first analyses how current academic and professional practice evaluate investments in transport decarbonization. A systematic examination of the literature reveals that most studies neglect uncertainty or treat it superficially, relying on fixed assumptions about costs, technological performances and user behavior. This critical evidence motivates the development of new quantitative tools that explicitly model risk and flexibility in decision making, like Real Options (RO) analysis. 2 Building on this foundation, the thesis develops RO frameworks to analyze how decision makers and policy makers can manage technological uncertainty and identify optimal strategies for fleet replacement and public support in the transition toward zero-emission busses, especially BEBs. The approach captures the value of flexibility and the importance of timing in investment and policy decisions, showing how uncertainty can be transformed from a source of risk into a strategic element for improving efficiency. By integrating stochastic modelling with economic evaluation, the analysis provides a perspective on how operators can plan fleet renewal under evolving conditions and how governments can design adaptive policies that accelerate decarbonization while containing financial exposure. The analysis then extends to the private mobility sector, examining how uncertainty also influences the design of fiscal instruments for electric vehicles. It finds that taxations (or incentives) can ensure fairness and financial sustainability only if they adapt to evolving market conditions, intrinsically uncertain behavioral responses and geographical differences between urban and rural contexts. The thesis ultimately shows that uncertainty is not an external disturbance but the defining feature of the ecological transition. Recognizing it and acting upon it transforms both policy making and strategic investment from reactive to forward looking. In this perspective, embracing uncertainty enables governments and decision makers to design resilient incentives, allocate resources more efficiently and guide the parallel decarbonization of public transportation and private mobility. The results suggest that future transport policies and investment strategies should replace static evaluations with adaptive frameworks capable of learning and evolving alongside technological and societal change.
La decarbonizzazione del settore dei trasporti rappresenta una delle sfide più cruciali per il raggiungimento degli obiettivi climatici globali. Tuttavia, la transizione ecologica della mobilità sia pubblica sia privata è vincolata da profonde incertezze tecnologiche, economiche e politiche. Nonostante i notevoli progressi nelle tecnologie di propulsione pulita e nei sistemi energetici, il settore dei trasporti resta uno dei maggiori responsabili delle emissioni di gas serra a livello mondiale, con quasi un quarto delle emissioni globali di CO₂. Sebbene la diffusione delle energie rinnovabili e dell’elettrificazione stia avanzando, la loro penetrazione nei sistemi di trasporto è disomogenea e dipende fortemente dalla preparazione infrastrutturale, dai quadri normativi e dall’accettazione dei consumatori. Nel settore del trasporto pubblico, tra i sistemi di trazione alternativi, gli autobus elettrici a batteria (BEB) rappresentano attualmente l’opzione più promettente per ridurre le emissioni. Il loro potenziale economico e ambientale è in crescita, ma la loro reale convenienza resta incerta e fortemente dipendente dal contesto. I BEB presentano costi iniziali elevati e incertezze legate alle infrastrutture che ne limitano ancora la diffusione su larga scala. Si prevedono miglioramenti futuri in termini di costi e prestazioni, ma sia il ritmo sia l’entità di tali progressi restano imprevedibili. Gli operatori spesso rinviano il rinnovo delle flotte in attesa di incentivi più chiari o di tecnologie più mature, ma un ritardo eccessivo rischia di rallentare la transizione stessa. Allo stesso tempo, la mobilità privata resta il principale contributore alle emissioni legate ai trasporti e un ostacolo rilevante al raggiungimento della piena decarbonizzazione. L’adozione dei veicoli elettrici (EV) sta accelerando, ma il suo ritmo e la sua distribuzione tra i vari Paesi sono fortemente disomogenei. La diffusione è influenzata in modo decisivo dalle politiche fiscali e dal mix di generazione energetica. Anche se i costi iniziali stanno diminuendo, gli utenti restano fortemente sensibili a tassazione e incentivi, mentre l’entità di questa risposta rimane ancora altamente incerta. Questa tesi indaga in che modo l’incertezza plasmi la transizione ecologica del trasporto pubblico e privato e come governi e decisori possano progettare strategie che restino efficaci al mutare delle condizioni. Essa esamina le scelte di investimento e le misure fiscali attraverso approcci analitici complementari che combinano economia, analisi del rischio e teoria delle decisioni. L’argomento centrale è che i modelli deterministici continuano a dominare la valutazione e la pianificazione dei trasporti, nonostante la loro incapacità di cogliere la profondità e la persistenza dell’incertezza nelle transizioni reali. La ricerca analizza innanzitutto il modo in cui l’attuale pratica accademica e professionale valuta gli investimenti nella decarbonizzazione dei trasporti. Un esame sistematico della letteratura rivela che la maggior parte degli studi trascura l’incertezza o la tratta superficialmente, basandosi su ipotesi fisse relative a costi, prestazioni tecnologiche e comportamento degli utenti. Questa evidenza critica motiva lo sviluppo di nuovi strumenti quantitativi che modellano esplicitamente il rischio e la flessibilità nel processo decisionale, come l’analisi delle opzioni reali (RO). Su queste basi, la tesi sviluppa framework di RO per analizzare come decisori e responsabili delle politiche pubbliche possano gestire l’incertezza tecnologica e individuare strategie ottimali per il rinnovo delle flotte e per il sostegno pubblico nella transizione verso autobus a zero emissioni, in particolare i BEB. L’approccio coglie il valore della flessibilità e l’importanza della tempistica nelle decisioni di investimento e di policy, mostrando come l’incertezza possa essere trasformata da fonte di rischio a elemento strategico per migliorare l’efficienza. Integrando modellazione stocastica e valutazione economica, l’analisi offre una prospettiva su come gli operatori possano pianificare il rinnovo delle flotte in condizioni evolutive e su come i governi possano progettare politiche adattive che accelerino la decarbonizzazione contenendo al tempo stesso l’esposizione finanziaria. L’analisi si estende poi al settore della mobilità privata, esaminando come l’incertezza influenzi anche la progettazione degli strumenti fiscali per i veicoli elettrici. Essa rileva che tassazione e incentivi possono garantire equità e sostenibilità finanziaria solo se si adattano all’evoluzione delle condizioni di mercato, a risposte comportamentali intrinsecamente incerte e alle differenze geografiche tra contesti urbani e rurali. La tesi mostra infine che l’incertezza non è un fattore esterno di disturbo, ma la caratteristica distintiva della transizione ecologica. Riconoscerla e agire di conseguenza trasforma sia la definizione delle politiche sia gli investimenti strategici da approcci reattivi a prospettive orientate al futuro. In quest’ottica, accogliere l’incertezza consente a governi e decisori di progettare incentivi resilienti, allocare le risorse in modo più efficiente e guidare la decarbonizzazione parallela del trasporto pubblico e della mobilità privata. I risultati suggeriscono che le future politiche dei trasporti e le strategie di investimento dovrebbero sostituire le valutazioni statiche con framework adattivi capaci di apprendere ed evolvere insieme al cambiamento tecnologico e sociale.
Integrating uncertainty into the decarbonization of the transport sector: new tools and strategies for policy and decision makers
DE SANTIS, DANIELE
2026
Abstract
The decarbonization of the transport sector stands as one of the most critical challenges in achieving global climate goals. However, the ecological transition of both public and private mobility is constrained by deep technological, economic, and policy uncertainties. Despite major advances in clean propulsion technology and energy systems, the transport sector remains one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions worldwide, responsible for nearly a quarter of global CO₂ output. While renewable energy deployment and electrification are progressing, their diffusion across transport systems is uneven and strongly dependent on infrastructure readiness, regulatory frameworks, and consumer acceptance. In public transport sector, among alternative powertrains, battery electric buses (BEBs) currently represent the most promising option for reducing emissions. Their economic and environmental potential is growing, yet their actual convenience remains uncertain and strongly context dependent. BEBs face high initial costs and infrastructure-related uncertainties that still limit large-scale deployment. Future improvements in costs and performance are expected, but both their pace and magnitude remain unpredictable. Operators often postpone fleet replacement while waiting for clearer incentives or more mature technologies, yet excessive delay risks slowing down the transition itself. At the same time, private mobility remains the largest contributor to transport-related emissions and a major obstacle to achieving full decarbonization. The uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) is accelerating, but its pace and distribution across countries are highly uneven. Adoption is strongly shaped by fiscal policies and energy generation mix. Even as upfront costs decrease, users remain strongly responsive to taxation and incentives, however the magnitude of this response is still highly uncertain. This thesis investigates how uncertainty shapes the ecological transition of public and private transport and how governments and decision makers can design strategies that remain effective under changing conditions. It examines investment choices and fiscal measures through complementary analytical approaches that combine economics, risk analysis and decision theory. The central argument is that deterministic models still dominate transport appraisal and planning, despite their inability to capture the depth and persistence of uncertainty in real-world transitions. The research first analyses how current academic and professional practice evaluate investments in transport decarbonization. A systematic examination of the literature reveals that most studies neglect uncertainty or treat it superficially, relying on fixed assumptions about costs, technological performances and user behavior. This critical evidence motivates the development of new quantitative tools that explicitly model risk and flexibility in decision making, like Real Options (RO) analysis. 2 Building on this foundation, the thesis develops RO frameworks to analyze how decision makers and policy makers can manage technological uncertainty and identify optimal strategies for fleet replacement and public support in the transition toward zero-emission busses, especially BEBs. The approach captures the value of flexibility and the importance of timing in investment and policy decisions, showing how uncertainty can be transformed from a source of risk into a strategic element for improving efficiency. By integrating stochastic modelling with economic evaluation, the analysis provides a perspective on how operators can plan fleet renewal under evolving conditions and how governments can design adaptive policies that accelerate decarbonization while containing financial exposure. The analysis then extends to the private mobility sector, examining how uncertainty also influences the design of fiscal instruments for electric vehicles. It finds that taxations (or incentives) can ensure fairness and financial sustainability only if they adapt to evolving market conditions, intrinsically uncertain behavioral responses and geographical differences between urban and rural contexts. The thesis ultimately shows that uncertainty is not an external disturbance but the defining feature of the ecological transition. Recognizing it and acting upon it transforms both policy making and strategic investment from reactive to forward looking. In this perspective, embracing uncertainty enables governments and decision makers to design resilient incentives, allocate resources more efficiently and guide the parallel decarbonization of public transportation and private mobility. The results suggest that future transport policies and investment strategies should replace static evaluations with adaptive frameworks capable of learning and evolving alongside technological and societal change.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Tesi_dottorato_DeSantis.pdf
accesso aperto
Licenza:
Creative Commons
Dimensione
7.31 MB
Formato
Adobe PDF
|
7.31 MB | Adobe PDF | Visualizza/Apri |
I documenti in UNITESI sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.
https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/363394
URN:NBN:IT:UNIROMA1-363394