Phytopathogenic fungi represent one of the major threats to agriculture, as they are a leading cause of plant diseases that compromise food production, with serious repercussions for the global economy and food security. To address the growing urgency of managing fungal plant diseases, it is essential to explore novel compounds capable of effectively inhibiting pathogens and overcoming resistance. Ideally, such compounds should also pose lower risks to both human health and the environment compared to existing commercial products. Within this framework, this PhD project focused on phenolic natural compounds and their synthetic derivatives, characterized by diverse core structures, in order to assess their antifungal activity and elucidate their mechanisms of action. In particular, four classes of compounds were taken into consideration. As regard the mechanisms of action, one of the targets investigated was the phospholipid membrane of phytopathogenic fungi. To this end, a model membrane composed of DPPC:DOPC:DPPG:DPPS in a 30:20:35:15 molar ratio was designed. Interaction studies of THY and CAR with the model membrane, performed using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), indicate that the phospholipid components of the membrane were targets of the selected compounds, with the interaction primarily driven by hydrogen bonding with the phospholipid headgroups, followed by the influence of headgroup size. Natural phloroglucinol dimers were synthesized, along with their partially and fully methylated and acetylated analogues. Only 3 out of 15 compounds were able to inhibit the mycelial growth of P. oryzae and B. cinerea by up to 40% at 500 μM, and only one compound inhibited appressorium formation of P. oryzae by up to 50% at 200 μM. The most promising compounds were characterized by a polymethylated diphenyl ether nucleus, and their interaction with the previously designed model membrane, studied via DSC, indicates that the phospholipid membrane is a possible molecular target of this class of compounds, although likely not the only one. Moreover, attempts to synthesize eckol phlorotannins have been made, but the desired molecule has not yet been obtained. Furthermore, a small series of 11 stilbenoid–carboxamide hybrids was prepared and tested as antifungal agents. Only 2 compounds showed excellent inhibition of P. oryzae mycelial growth, even surpassing the positive controls fluxapyroxad and azoxystrobin, while exhibiting only modest activity against B. cinerea. Moreover, these compounds appear to act more likely as new SDH inhibitors rather than as true hybrid molecules. Finally, the natural compound isobavachalcone is identified as a potent antifungal agent, as it completely inhibited both spore germination and appressorium formation of P. oryzae, and nearly completely inhibited spore germination of B. cinerea at very low concentrations (10–50 μM). Additionally, xanthohumol was recognized as a powerful antifungal agent, although less effective than IBC. Moreover, tomato leaf assays demonstrated that these compounds are non-phytotoxic and effective against B. cinerea spores in planta. DSC and docking studies suggest that IBC may interact with Enolase 1 protein, but further research is required to confirm the relationship between this interaction and its strong biological activity. The thermodynamic stability of the Eno1 protein was assessed for the first time, fitting a denaturation/dissociation process (𝑁2𝐾↔2𝐷) model.
I funghi fitopatogeni rappresentano una delle principali minacce per l’agricoltura, essendo una delle principali cause di malattie delle piante che compromettono la produzione alimentare, con gravi ripercussioni sull’economia globale e sulla sicurezza alimentare. Per far fronte all’urgenza crescente nella gestione delle malattie fungine delle piante, è fondamentale esplorare nuovi composti in grado di inibire efficacemente i patogeni e superare la resistenza. Idealmente, tali composti dovrebbero anche presentare rischi inferiori per la salute umana e per l’ambiente rispetto ai prodotti commerciali esistenti. In questo contesto, il presente progetto di dottorato si è concentrato a studiare composti naturali fenolici e dei loro derivati sintetici al fine di valutarne l’attività antifungina ed elucidarne i meccanismi d’azione. In particolare, sono state prese in considerazione quattro classi di composti. Per quanto riguarda i meccanismi d’azione, uno dei target molecolari studiato è stata la membrana fosfolipidica dei funghi fitopatogeni. A questo scopo, è stata progettata una membrana modello composta da DPPC:DOPC:DPPG:DPPS in rapporto molare 30:20:35:15. Gli studi di interazione tra THY e CAR e la membrana modello, condotti mediante Calorimetria Differenziale a Scansione (DSC), indicano che la porzione lipidica della membrana è bersaglio dei composti studiati, in cui l’interazione è principalmente determinata dai legami idrogeno con i gruppi della testa dei fosfolipidi, seguita dall’influenza delle loro. Sono stati sintetizzati i dimeri naturali del floroglucinolo, insieme ai loro analoghi parzialmente e completamente metilati e acetilati. Solo 3 dei 15 composti sono stati in grado di inibire la crescita miceliale di P. oryzae e B. cinerea fino al 40% a 500 μM, e solo un composto ha inibito la formazione dell’appressorio di P. oryzae fino al 50% a 200 μM. I composti più promettenti sono caratterizzati da un nucleo di etere difenilico polimetilato, e la loro interazione con la membrana modello precedentemente progettata, studiata tramite DSC, indica che la membrana fosfolipidica è un possibile bersaglio molecolare di questa classe di composti, sebbene probabilmente non l’unico. Inoltre, sono stati effettuati tentativi di sintesi del florotannino eckol, ma la molecola desiderata non è ancora stata ottenuta. Inoltre, è stata sintetizzata una piccola serie di 11 composti ibridi stilbenoide–carbossammide, che è poi stata testata per valutare l’attività antifunginea. Solo 2 composti hanno mostrato un’eccellente inibizione della crescita miceliale di P. oryzae, superando persino l’effetto dei controlli positivi fluxapyroxad e azoxystrobin, mentre hanno mostrato solo un’attività modesta contro B. cinerea. Inoltre, questi composti sembrano agire più probabilmente come nuovi inibitori della SDH, piuttosto che come veri e propri composti ibridi. Infine, il composto naturale isobavachalcone (IBC) è stato identificato come un potente agente antifungino, poiché è in grado di inibire completamente sia la germinazione delle spore sia la formazione dell’appressorio di P. oryzae, e quasi completamente la germinazione delle spore di B. cinerea a concentrazioni molto basse (10–50 μM). Inoltre, anche lo xantumolo è stato riconosciuto come un potente agente antifungino, sebbene meno efficace rispetto a IBC. I saggi su foglie di pomodoro hanno inoltre dimostrato che questi composti non sono fitotossici e risultano efficaci contro le spore di B. cinerea in planta. Studi di calorimetria (DSC) e docking suggeriscono che l’IBC possa interagire con la proteina Enolasi 1, ma sono necessarie ulteriori ricerche per confermare la correlazione tra questa interazione e la sua forte attività biologica. La stabilità termodinamica della proteina è stata valutata per la prima volta, interpolando il modello relativo al processo di denaturazione/dissociazione (𝑁2𝐾↔2𝐷).
NATURE-INSPIRED MOLECULES FOR PLANT PROTECTION: FROM SYNTHESIS TO THE INTERACTION WITH MOLECULAR TARGETS
SACCHI, FRANCESCA
2026
Abstract
Phytopathogenic fungi represent one of the major threats to agriculture, as they are a leading cause of plant diseases that compromise food production, with serious repercussions for the global economy and food security. To address the growing urgency of managing fungal plant diseases, it is essential to explore novel compounds capable of effectively inhibiting pathogens and overcoming resistance. Ideally, such compounds should also pose lower risks to both human health and the environment compared to existing commercial products. Within this framework, this PhD project focused on phenolic natural compounds and their synthetic derivatives, characterized by diverse core structures, in order to assess their antifungal activity and elucidate their mechanisms of action. In particular, four classes of compounds were taken into consideration. As regard the mechanisms of action, one of the targets investigated was the phospholipid membrane of phytopathogenic fungi. To this end, a model membrane composed of DPPC:DOPC:DPPG:DPPS in a 30:20:35:15 molar ratio was designed. Interaction studies of THY and CAR with the model membrane, performed using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), indicate that the phospholipid components of the membrane were targets of the selected compounds, with the interaction primarily driven by hydrogen bonding with the phospholipid headgroups, followed by the influence of headgroup size. Natural phloroglucinol dimers were synthesized, along with their partially and fully methylated and acetylated analogues. Only 3 out of 15 compounds were able to inhibit the mycelial growth of P. oryzae and B. cinerea by up to 40% at 500 μM, and only one compound inhibited appressorium formation of P. oryzae by up to 50% at 200 μM. The most promising compounds were characterized by a polymethylated diphenyl ether nucleus, and their interaction with the previously designed model membrane, studied via DSC, indicates that the phospholipid membrane is a possible molecular target of this class of compounds, although likely not the only one. Moreover, attempts to synthesize eckol phlorotannins have been made, but the desired molecule has not yet been obtained. Furthermore, a small series of 11 stilbenoid–carboxamide hybrids was prepared and tested as antifungal agents. Only 2 compounds showed excellent inhibition of P. oryzae mycelial growth, even surpassing the positive controls fluxapyroxad and azoxystrobin, while exhibiting only modest activity against B. cinerea. Moreover, these compounds appear to act more likely as new SDH inhibitors rather than as true hybrid molecules. Finally, the natural compound isobavachalcone is identified as a potent antifungal agent, as it completely inhibited both spore germination and appressorium formation of P. oryzae, and nearly completely inhibited spore germination of B. cinerea at very low concentrations (10–50 μM). Additionally, xanthohumol was recognized as a powerful antifungal agent, although less effective than IBC. Moreover, tomato leaf assays demonstrated that these compounds are non-phytotoxic and effective against B. cinerea spores in planta. DSC and docking studies suggest that IBC may interact with Enolase 1 protein, but further research is required to confirm the relationship between this interaction and its strong biological activity. The thermodynamic stability of the Eno1 protein was assessed for the first time, fitting a denaturation/dissociation process (𝑁2𝐾↔2𝐷) model.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14242/355192
URN:NBN:IT:UNIMI-355192